Burmese cuisine

Category:Use British English from November 2015Category:All Wikipedia articles written in British English Category:Use dmy dates from November 2015

Burmese cuisine encompasses the diverse regional culinary traditions of Myanmar, which have developed through longstanding agricultural practices, centuries of sociopolitical and economic change, and cross-cultural contact and trade with neighboring countries at the confluence of Southeast Asia, East Asia, and South Asia, such as modern-day nations of Thailand, China, and India, respectively.[1]

Laphet, served in a traditional lacquer tray called laphet ok.

Burmese cuisine is typified by a wide-ranging array of dishes, including traditional Burmese curries and stews, Burmese salads, accompanied by soups and a medley of vegetables that are traditionally eaten with white rice.[2] Burmese curries are generally distinguished from other Southeast Asian curries in the former's prominent use of an aromatic trio of garlic, shallots, and ginger (in common with South Asian curries), and the general lack of coconut milk.

Burmese cuisine also features Indian breads as well as noodles, which are fried or prepared in salads and noodle soups, chief among them mohinga. Street food and snack culture has also nurtured the profuse variety of traditional Burmese fritters and modern savory and sweet snacks labeled under the umbrella of mont.

The contrasting flavor profile of Burmese cuisine is broadly captured in the phrase chin ngan sat (ချဉ်ငန်စပ်Category:Articles containing Burmese-language text), which literally means "sour, salty, and spicy."[3] A popular Burmese rhyme — "of all the fruit, the mango's the best; of all the meat, the pork's the best; and of all the vegetables, lahpet's (tea leaves are) the best" — sums up the traditional favourites.[Note 1]

History

A traditional Burmese painting depicts the Royal Ploughing Ceremony, during which the monarch ceremonially ploughs a rice field outside the royal palace, to mark the traditional start of the rice-growing season.

Rice is the principal staple in Burmese cuisine, reflecting several millennia of rice cultivation, which first emerged in the country's Chindwin, Ayeyarwady, and Thanlwin river valleys between 11,000 and 5000 BCE.[4] By 3000 BCE, irrigated rice cultivation flourished in the region, paralleled by the domestication of cattle and pigs by inhabitants.[4]

In addition to rice, tea originated in the borderlands separating Myanmar from China, precipitating a longstanding tradition of tea consumption and the development of pickled tea known as laphet, which continues to play a pivotal role in Burmese ritual culture.[5][6] This longstanding history is reflected in the Burmese language, which is among the few world languages whose word for "tea" is not etymologically traced back to the Chinese word for "tea" (see etymology of tea).[6]

Agrarian settlements were settled by ancestors of Myanmar's modern-day ethnolinguistic groups. From these settlements emerged a succession of Burmese, Mon, Shan, Rakhine-speaking kingdoms and tributary states that now make up contemporary Myanmar. Paddy rice cultivation remains synonymous with the predominantly Buddhist Bamar, Mon, Shan, and Rakhine peoples who inhabit the country's fertile lowlands and plateaus.[7]

Burmese cuisine has been significantly enriched by contact and trade with neighboring kingdoms and countries well into modern times. The Columbian exchange in the 15th and 16th centuries introduced key ingredients into the Burmese culinary repertoire, including tomatoes, chili peppers, peanuts, and potatoes.[8] A series of Burmese–Siamese wars between the 16th to 19th centuries resulted in the emergence of Thai-inspired delicacies, including khanon dok, shwe yin aye, mont let hsaung, and Yodaya mont di.[9]

Buddhist monks in Mandalay receive food alms from a htamanè hawker during their daily alms round (ဆွမ်းလောင်းလှည့်).

While record-keeping of pre-colonial culinary traditions is scant, food was and remains deeply intertwined with religious life, especially among Buddhist communities, exemplified in the giving of food alms (dāna), and communal feasts called satuditha and ahlu pwe (အလှူပွဲ). One of the few remaining pre-colonial cookbooks is the Sadawhset Kyan (စားတော်ဆက်ကျမ်းCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text, lit. 'Treatise on Royal Foods'), written on a palm leaf manuscript in 1866 during the Konbaung dynasty.[10] By the Konbaung dynasty (16th to 19th centuries), elaborate preparations of food played a central role in key court ceremonies (e.g., naming ceremonies, wedding ceremonies, etc.), including as ritual offerings to Hindu and indigenous deities, and as celebratory meals for attendees.[11] By the Konbaung period, 126 distinct varieties of rice were cultivated in the country.[12]

British rule in Burma between the 19th and 20th centuries led to the establishment of Burmese Indian and Sino-Burmese communities that introduced novel cooking techniques, ingredients, food vocabulary, and fusion dishes that are now considered integral parts of Burmese cuisine.[13] These range from Indian breads such as naan and paratha to Chinese stir frying techniques and ingredients like tofu and soy sauce.

Etiquette and customs

Dining

A traditional Burmese meal includes a bowl of soup, rice, several meat curries, and ngapi yay (a dip or dipping sauce) with tozaya (vegetables for dipping).

Traditionally, the Burmese eat meals from plates on a low table or daunglan, while sitting on a bamboo mat.[14] Dishes are simultaneously served and shared.[14] A traditional meal includes steamed white rice as the main dish accompanied by Burmese curries, a light soup or consommé, and other side dishes, including fried vegetables, Burmese fritters, and ngapi yay gyo (ငါးပိရည်ကျို), a plate of fresh and blanched vegetables served with pickled fish dip.[12] The meal is then finished with a piece of palm sugar or laphet (fermented tea leaves).[15]

Out of respect, the eldest diners are always served first before the rest join in; even when the elders are absent, the first morsel of rice from the pot is scooped and put aside as an act of respect to one's parents, a custom known as u cha (ဦးချCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text, lit. 'first serve').[16]

The Burmese traditionally eat with their right hand, forming the rice into a small ball with only the fingertips and mixing this with various morsels before popping it into their mouths.[16] Chopsticks and Chinese-style spoons are used for noodle dishes, although noodle salads are more likely to be eaten with just a spoon. Western-style utensils, especially forks and knives, have gained currency in recent years.

In traditional Burmese eateries, green tea and numerous side dishes are served complimentary alongside the main dishes and rice.[17][18]

Religious practices

The country's diverse religious makeup influences its cuisine, as Buddhists and Hindus traditionally avoid beef and Muslims pork. Beef is considered taboo by devout Buddhists and farmers because the cow is highly regarded as a beast of burden.[19] Vegetarianism is commonly practiced by Buddhists during the three-month Vassa (ဝါတွင်း) between July and October, as well as during Uposatha days, reflected in the Burmese word for "vegetarian," thet that lut (သက်သတ်လွတ်, lit. 'free of killing'). During this time, devout Buddhists observe eight or more precepts, including fasting rules that restrict food intake to two daily meals (i.e., breakfast and lunch) taken before noon.

Beef taboo

The beef taboo is fairly widespread in Myanmar, particularly in the Buddhist community. In Myanmar, beef is typically obtained from cattle that are slaughtered at the end of their working lives (16 years of age) or from sick animals.[20] Cattle is rarely raised for meat; 58% of cattle in the country is used for draught animal power.[20] Few people eat beef, and there is a general dislike of beef (especially among the Bamar and Burmese Chinese),[21][22] although it is more commonly eaten in regional cuisines, particularly those of ethnic minorities like the Kachin.[13] Buddhists, when giving up meat during the Buddhist (Vassa) or Uposatha days, will forego beef first.[23] Butchers tend to be Muslim because of the Buddhist doctrine of ahimsa (no harm).[24]

During the country's last dynasty, the Konbaung dynasty, habitual consumption of beef was punishable by public flogging.[25] In 1885, Ledi Sayadaw, a prominent Buddhist monk wrote the Nwa-myitta-sa (နွားမေတ္တာစာCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text), a poetic prose letter which argued that Burmese Buddhists should not kill cattle and eat beef, because Burmese farmers depended on them as beasts of burden to maintain their livelihoods, that the marketing of beef for human consumption threatened the extinction of buffalo and cattle, and that the practice was ecologically unsound.[26] He subsequently led successful beef boycotts during the colonial era, and influenced a generation of Burmese nationalists in adopting this stance.[26]

On 29 August 1961, the Burmese Parliament passed the State Religion Promotion Act of 1961, which explicitly banned the slaughtering of cattle nationwide (beef became known as todo tha (တိုးတိုးသားCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text); lit. 'hush hush meat').[27] Religious groups, such as Muslims, were required to apply for exemption licences to slaughter cattle on religious holidays. This ban was repealed a year later, after Ne Win led a coup d'état and declared martial law in the country.

Food theories

In traditional Burmese medicine, foods are divided into two classes: heating (အပူစာCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text, apu za) or cooling (အအေးစာCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text, a-aye za), based on their effects on one's body system, similar to the Chinese classification of food.[16] Examples of heating foods include chicken, bitter melon, durian, mango, chocolate, and ice cream. Examples of cooling foods include pork, eggplant, dairy products, cucumbers, and radish.

The Burmese also hold several taboos and superstitions regarding consumption during various occasions in one's life, especially pregnancy. For instance, pregnant women are not supposed to eat chili, due to the belief that it causes children to have sparse scalp hairs.[16]

Cooking techniques

Category:Articles to be expanded from January 2021Category:All articles to be expanded
Beans and pulses are commonly used in Burmese cuisine.

Burmese dishes are not cooked with precise recipes. The use and portion of ingredients used may vary, but the precision of timing is of utmost importance.[16][10] Burmese dishes may be stewed, boiled, fried, roasted, steamed, baked or grilled, or any combination of the said techniques.[10] Burmese curries use only a handful of spices (in comparison to Indian ones) and use more fresh garlic and ginger.[10]

Regional cuisines

Htamin jin, 'fermented' rice kneaded with fish and/or potato with twice-fried Shan tofu, is a popular local dish at Inle Lake.

Broadly speaking, Burmese cuisine is divided between the culinary traditions of Upper Myanmar, which is inland and landlocked; and Lower Myanmar, which is surrounded by numerous rivers, river deltas, and the Andaman Sea.[28] Variations between regional cuisines are largely driven by the availability of fresh ingredients. Myanmar's long coastline has provided an abundant source of fresh seafood, which is particularly associated with Rakhine cuisine.[29] Southern Myanmar, particularly the area around Mawlamyaing, is known for its cuisine, as the Burmese proverb goes: "Mandalay for eloquence, Yangon for boasting, Mawlamyaing for food."[30][Note 2]

Cuisine in Lower Myanmar, including Yangon and Mawlamyaing, makes extensive use of fish and seafood-based products like fish sauce and ngapi (fermented seafood).[28] The cuisine in Upper Myanmar, including the Bamar heartland (Mandalay, Magway, and Sagaing Regions), Shan State, and Kachin States, tends to use more meat, poultry, pulses and beans.[28] The level of spices and use of fresh herbs varies depending on the region; Kachin and Shan curries will often use more fresh herbs.[2]

Fusion Chettiar (ချစ်တီးကုလားCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text) cuisine, originating from Southern Indian cuisine, is also popular in cities.

Dishes and ingredients

Burmese cuisine incorporates numerous local ingredients that are less frequently used in other Southeast Asian cuisines, among them sour roselle leaves, astringent pennywort leaves, goat, mutton, and dried beans and lentils.[31]

Because a standardised system of romanisation for spoken Burmese does not exist, pronunciations of the following dishes in modern standard Burmese approximated using IPA are provided (see IPA/Burmese for details).

Preserved foods

A plate of ngapi yay gyo is surrounded by an assortment of traditional Burmese side dishes.

Myanmar is one of very few countries where tea is not only drunk but eaten as lahpet, pickled tea served with various accompaniments.[32][33] The practice of eating tea dates in modern-day Myanmar back to prehistoric antiquity, reflecting the legacy of indigenous tribes who pickled and fermented tea leaves inside bamboo tubes, bamboo baskets, plantain leaves and pots.[6] Tea leaves are traditionally cultivated by the Palaung people.[6] Pickled tea leaves continue to play an important role in Burmese culture today.[6] Ngapi (ငါးပိCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text), a fermented paste made from salted fish or shrimp, is considered the cornerstone of any Burmese traditional meal. It is used to season many soups, salads, curries and dishes, and condiments, imparting a rich umami flavor.[2] The ngapi of Rakhine State contains no or little salt, and uses marine fish. Meanwhile, ngapi made with freshwater fish is common in Ayeyarwady and Tanintharyi regions. Ngapi yay (ငါးပိရည်Category:Articles containing Burmese-language text) is an essential part of Karen and Bamar cuisine, in which a sauce dip of ngapi cooked in various vegetables and spices is served with blanched and fresh vegetables, similar to Thai nam phrik, Indonesian lalab, and Malay ulam. Pickled fish, called ngachin, is also used in Burmese cooking.

Dried fermented bean cakes called pè bok are grilled or fried in Shan cooking.

Shan cuisine traditionally uses fermented beans called pè ngapi (ပဲငါးပိCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text; lit. 'bean ngapi'), in lieu of ngapi, to impart umami.[2] Dried bean ngapi chips (ပဲပုပ်Category:Articles containing Burmese-language text; lit. 'spoiled beans') are used as condiments for various Shan dishes.[34]

Pon ye gyi (ပုံးရည်ကြီးCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text), a thick salty black paste made from fermented beans, is popular in the Bamar heartland. It is used in cooking, especially with pork, and as a salad with peanut oil, chopped onions and red chili. Bagan is an important pon ye gyi producer.[35]

Burmese cuisine also features a wide variety of pickled vegetables and fruits that are preserved in oil and spices, or in brine and rice wine.[3] The former, called thanat (သနပ်), are similar to South Asian pickles, including mango pickle. The latter are called chinbat (ချဉ်ဖတ်), and include pickles like mohnyin gyin.

Rice

Buddhist monks cooking rice at the Mahagandhayon Monastery in Amarapura.

The most common staple in Myanmar is steamed rice, called htamin (ထမင်းCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text). Burmese varieties of rice are typically starchier than jasmine or basmati rice.[12] Fragrant, aromatic varieties of white rice, including paw hsan hmwe (ပေါ်ဆန်းမွှေးCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text), are popular. Lower-amylose varieties of glutinous rice, which are called kauk hnyin (ကောက်ညှင်းCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text), also feature in Burmese cuisine, including a purple variety called ngacheik (ငချိပ်). Consumers in the northern highlands (e.g., Shan State) prefer stickier, lower-amylose varieties like kauk hnyin and kauk sei, while consumers in lower delta regions preferring higher-amylose varieties like kauk chaw and kauk kyan.[36] Lower-amylose varieties of rice are commonly used in traditional Burmese snacks called mont.[36] While rice is traditionally eaten plain, flavored versions like buttered rice and coconut rice are commonplace festive staples.[37]

Hsi htamin, glutinous rice seasoned with oil and turmeric, is a common breakfast food.

Noodles

Rice noodles sun-drying in Hsipaw.

Burmese cuisine uses a wide variety of noodles, which are prepared in soups, salads, or other dry noodle dishes and typically eaten outside of lunch, or as a snack.[2] Fresh, thin rice noodles called mont bat (မုန့်ဖတ်Category:Articles containing Burmese-language text) or mont di (မုန့်တီCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text), are similar to Thai khanom chin, and feature in Myanmar's national dish, mohinga. Burmese cuisine also has a category of rice noodles of varying sizes and shapes called nan, including nangyi (နန်းကြီးCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text), thick udon-like noodles; nanlat (နန်းလတ်Category:Articles containing Burmese-language text), medium-sized rice noodles; nanthe (နန်းသေးCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text), thinner rice noodles; and nanbya (နန်းပြားCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text), flat rice noodles.[43] Cellophane noodles, called kyazan (ကြာဆံCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text, lit. 'lotus thread') and wheat-based noodles called khauk swe (ခေါက်ဆွဲCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text),[43] are often used in salads, soups, and stir-fries.[2]

Shan khao swè and tohpu jaw, with monnyin gyin on the side

Dry or fried noodle dishes include:

Mandalay meeshay, served with a thin hingyo broth.

Noodle soups include:

Salads

Samosa salad in Mandalay

Burmese salads (အသုပ်Category:Articles containing Burmese-language text; transliterated athoke or athouk) are a diverse category of indigenous salads in Burmese cuisine. Burmese salads are made of cooked and raw ingredients that are mixed by hand to combine and balance a wide-ranging array of flavors and textures.[2] Burmese salads are eaten as standalone snacks, as side dishes paired with Burmese curries, and as entrees.[3]

Thayet chin thoke – fermented green mango salad with onions, green chilli, roasted peanuts, sesame and peanut oil

Curries

A traditional Danu-style meal featuring a curry broth, rice disks, and a requisite plate of blanched vegetables and dip.

Burmese curry refers to a diverse array of dishes in Burmese cuisine that consist of protein or vegetables simmered or stewed in an base of aromatics.[2] Burmese curries generally differ from other Southeast Asian curries (e.g., Thai curry) in that Burmese curries make use of dried spices, in addition to fresh herbs and aromatics, and are often milder.[54] The most common variety of curry is called sibyan (ဆီပြန်Category:Articles containing Burmese-language text; lit. 'oil returns'), which is typified by a layer of oil that separates from the gravy and meat after cooked.[28] Pork, chicken, goat, shrimp, and fish are commonly prepared in Burmese curries.

Soups

Dandalun chinyay, a sour soup with chopped drumsticks

In Burmese cuisine, soups typically accompany meals featuring both rice and noodles, and are paired accordingly to balance contrasting flavors. Lightly flavored soups, called hin gyo (ဟင်းချိုCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text) are served with saltier dishes, while sour soups, called chinyay hin (ချဉ်ရည်ဟင်းCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text), are paired with rich, fatty Burmese curries.[3]

Thizon chinyay (သီးစုံချဉ်ရည်Category:Articles containing Burmese-language text [θízòʊɴ tʃìɴjè]Category:Pages with Burmese IPA, lit. 'sour soup of assorted vegetables'), cooked with drumstick, lady's finger, eggplant, green beans, potato, onions, ginger, dried chilli, boiled eggs, dried salted fish, fish paste and tamarind, is an elevated version of chinyay hin, and served during festive occasions.[3]

Other grains and breads

Palata is commonly dusted with sugar as a dessert or teatime snack.

Indian breads are commonly eaten for breakfast or teatime in Myanmar. Palata (ပလာတာCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text), also known as htattaya (ထပ်တစ်ရာ), a flaky fried flatbread related to Indian paratha, is often eaten with curried meats or as dessert with sprinkled sugar,[59] while nanbya (နံပြားCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text), a baked flatbread, is eaten with any Indian dishes.[38] Other favorites include aloo poori (အာလူးပူရီCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text), chapati (ချပါတီ), and appam (အာပုံ).[60][61]

Burmese-style omelette fried with acacia leaves

Other dishes include:

Snacks

A street hawker in Ponnagyun selling an assortment of fritters and mont to passersby.

Burmese cuisine has a wide variety of traditional snacks called mont, ranging from sweet desserts to savory food items that are steamed, baked, fried, deep-fried, or boiled. Traditional Burmese fritters, consisting of vegetables or seafood that have been battered and deep-fried, are also eaten as snacks or as toppings.[65]

Savory snacks include:

Sweet snacks include:

Fruits and fruit preserves

A street-side fruit stall in Yangon.

Myanmar has a wide range of fruits, mostly of tropical origin. Fruit is commonly eaten as a snack or dessert.[2] While most fruits are eaten fresh, a few, including jengkol, are boiled, roasted or otherwise cooked. Popular fruits include banana, mango, watermelon, papaya, jujube, avocado, pomelo, and guava.[69] Others include marian plum, mangosteen, sugar-apple, rambutan, durian, jackfruit, lychee, and pomegranate. Some fruits, including green mangoes, plums, and guavas, are traditionally eaten before they ripen, often mixed with chili powder and salt.[12]

Burmese fruit preserves, called yo (ယိုCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text), are also commonly eaten as standalone snacks. Common ones include fruit preserves made from fig, jujube, marian plum, citrus, mango, pineapple, and durian.

300 cultivars of mango are grown in Myanmar, including seintalon (စိန်တစ်လုံးCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text, lit. 'one diamond'), Ma Chit Su (မချစ်စုCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text), and mya kyauk (မြကျောက်Category:Articles containing Burmese-language text, lit. 'emerald stone').[12][70] 13 species of banana are locally cultivated in Myanmar, including the following cultivars:[71]

Beverages

Clay pots containing drinking water are commonly seen throughout Myanmar, left for travellers and passersby to rehydrate.

Tea is the national drink of Myanmar, reflecting the influence of Buddhism and its views on temperance.[72] Tea is central to Burmese dining culture; complimentary green tea is customarily served to diners at restaurants and teashops alike.[18] Various liquid concoctions made from fruits and coconut milk, including sugarcane juice, and mont let hsaung (မုန့်လက်ဆောင်းCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text) are also popular.[73] Indigenous fermented drinks like palm wine are also found across the country. During a traditional Burmese meal, drinks are not often served; instead, the usual liquid refreshment is a light broth or consommé served from a communal bowl.

Burmese tea

Snacks served at a Burmese tea house alongside Burmese milk tea.

Plain green tea, yay nway gyan (ရေနွေးကြမ်းCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text, lit. 'crude tea water'), is a popular form of tea drunk in Myanmar.[32] Tea leaves are traditionally cultivated in Shan State and Kachin State.[32] Milk tea, called laphet yay cho (လက်ဖက်ရည်ချို), made with strongly brewed black tea leaves, and sweetened with a customized ratio of condensed milk and evaporated milk, is also popular.[74][6]

Alcohol

Shwe yin aye is a popular and refreshing dessert

Palm wine, called htan yay (ထန်းရည်Category:Articles containing Burmese-language text), made from the fermented sap of the toddy palm, is traditionally consumed in rural parts of Upper Myanmar[75] Ethnic communities, including the Kachin and Shan, also brew local moonshines.[76] Several ethnic minorities traditionally brew alcoholic beverages using rice or glutinous rice called khaung [my] (ခေါင်ရည်Category:Articles containing Burmese-language text).[77] The khaung of the Chin peoples is brewed using millet seeds.[77] Locally brewed beers include Irrawaddy, Mandalay, Myanmar, and Tiger.[72]

Food establishments

Restaurants

Category:Articles to be expanded from January 2021Category:All articles to be expanded

Dine-in restaurants that serve steamed rice with traditional Burmese curries and dishes are called htamin hsaing (ထမင်းဆိုင်Category:Articles containing Burmese-language text; lit. 'rice shop'). At traditional curry shops, soup is typically served complimentary, alongside pickled and raw vegetables, chutneys and various seasonings.[12]

Tea shops

An outdoor café in Yangon

During British rule in Burma, Burmese Indians introduced tea shops to the country, first known as kaka hsaing, which later evolved into tea shops called laphet yay hsaing (လက်ဖက်ရည်ဆိုင်Category:Articles containing Burmese-language text) or kaphi (ကဖီး), the latter word from French café. Burmese tea shop culture emerged from a combination of British, Indian, and Chinese influences throughout the colonial period.[78] Tea shops are prevalent across the country, forming an important part of communal life.[33][79] Typically open throughout the day, some Burmese tea shops cater to locals, long-distance drivers and travellers alike. The Burmese typically gather in tea shops to drink milk tea served with an extensive array of snacks and meals.[78]

Street food

A street hawker selling Burmese pork offal skewers.

Street food stalls and hawkers are a feature of the Burmese urban landscape, especially in major cities like Yangon.[80] Burmese salads, snacks, and fritters are especially popular street foods.[81] In recent years, some major cities have clamped down on street food vendors. In 2016, Yangon banned the city's 6,000 street vendors from selling food on major thoroughfares, and relocated them to formal night markets set up by the city.[82]

Night markets, called nya zay (ညဈေးCategory:Articles containing Burmese-language text), are a feature of many Burmese towns and cities. Colonial observers as early as 1878 noted Burmese street hawkers selling delicacies, such as fruits, cakes, and laphet during "night bazaars."[83] The streets surrounding major daytime markets, such as Zegyo Market in Mandalay, typically double as makeshift night markets during the evenings.[84]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ The traditional rhyme is "A thee ma, thayet; a thar ma, wet; a ywet ma, lahpet" (အသီးမှာသရက်၊ အသားမှာဝက်၊ အရွက်မှာလက်ဖက်။Category:Articles containing Burmese-language text).
  2. ↑ The traditional Burmese proverb reads မန္တလေးစကား ရန်ကုန်အကြွား မော်လမြိုင်အစား.

References

  1. ↑ Tan, Desmond, 1966– (2017). Burma Superstar : addictive recipes from the crossroads of Southeast Asia. Leahy, Kate,, Lee, John, 1971– (First ed.). Berkeley. ISBN 9781607749509. OCLC 954719901.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisherCategory:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors listCategory:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Duguid, Naomi (27 November 2012). Burma: Rivers of Flavor. Random House of Canada. ISBN 978-0-307-36217-9.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Aye, MiMi (13 June 2019). Mandalay: Recipes and Tales from a Burmese Kitchen. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4729-5948-5.
  4. 1 2 Topich, William J.; Leitich, Keith A. (2013). The History of Myanmar. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-313-35724-4.
  5. ↑ Heiss, Mary Lou; Heiss, Robert J. (23 March 2011). The Story of Tea: A Cultural History and Drinking Guide. Potter/Ten Speed/Harmony/Rodale. ISBN 978-1-60774-172-5.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Driem, George L. van (14 January 2019). The Tale of Tea: A Comprehensive History of Tea from Prehistoric Times to the Present Day. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-39360-8.
  7. ↑ Seekins, Donald M. (27 March 2017). Historical Dictionary of Burma (Myanmar). Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-5381-0183-4.
  8. ↑ Cumo, Christopher (25 February 2015). The Ongoing Columbian Exchange: Stories of Biological and Economic Transfer in World History: Stories of Biological and Economic Transfer in World History. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-61069-796-5.
  9. ↑ "မန္တလေးက ခနုံထုပ်". The Voice (in Burmese). Archived from the original on 18 November 2019. Retrieved 15 November 2019.Category:CS1: unfit URLCategory:CS1 Burmese-language sources (my)
  10. 1 2 3 4 Khin Maung Saw. "Burmese Cuisine: Its Unique Style and Changes after British Annexation". Archived from the original on 27 July 2020. Retrieved 4 October 2012.
  11. ↑ Yi YI (1982). "Life at the Burmese Court under the Konbaung Kings". Burma Historical Research Department Silver Jubilee Publication. Archived from the original on 15 January 2021. Retrieved 13 January 2021.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 McGee, Joah (2015). The Golden Path. Pariyatti Publishing. ISBN 9781681720135.
  13. 1 2 Meyer, Arthur L.; Jon M. Vann (2003). The Appetizer Atlas: A World of Small Bites. John Wiley and Sons. p. 276. ISBN 978-0-471-41102-4.
  14. 1 2 "Myanmar Traditional Foods". Myanmar.com. Archived from the original on 13 October 2012. Retrieved 4 October 2012.
  15. ↑ Nway Nway Ei (2020). "A Comparative Study of the French and Myanmar Table Manners" (PDF). Mandalay University of Foreign Languages Research Journal. 11. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 January 2021. Retrieved 13 January 2021.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 Saw Myat Yin (2011). Culture Shock! Myanmar: A Survival Guide to Customs and Etiquette. Marshall Cavendish Corporation. ISBN 9780761458722.
  17. ↑ "A local-style Burmese meal". Travelfish. Archived from the original on 29 May 2023. Retrieved 29 May 2023.
  18. 1 2 "Drinking and Eating Burmese Tea". Matcha-Tea.com. 4 February 2016. Archived from the original on 30 November 2020. Retrieved 13 March 2019.
  19. ↑ Saw Myat Yin (2007). Culture Shock!: Myanmar. Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Inc. p. 133. ISBN 978-0-7614-5410-6.
  20. 1 2 Devendra, C.; Devendra, C.; Thomas, D.; Jabbar, M.A.; Kudo, H.; Thomas, D.; Jabbar, M.A.; Kudo, H. Improvement of livestock production in crop-animal systems in rainfed agro-ecological zones of South-East Asia. ILRI. p. 33.
  21. ↑ Gesteland, Richard R.; Georg F. Seyk (2002). Marketing across cultures in Asia. Copenhagen Business School Press DK. p. 156. ISBN 978-87-630-0094-9.
  22. ↑ U Khin Win (1991). A century of rice improvement in Burma. International Rice Research Institute. pp. 27, 44. ISBN 978-971-22-0024-3.
  23. ↑ Simoons, Frederick J. (1994). Eat not this flesh: food avoidances from prehistory to the present. Univ of Wisconsin Press. p. 120. ISBN 978-0-299-14254-4.
  24. ↑ Spiro, Melford (1982). Buddhism and society: a great tradition and its Burmese vicissitudes. University of California Press. p. 46. ISBN 0-520-04672-2.
  25. ↑ Hardiman, John Percy (1900). Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States. Vol. 2. Government of Burma. pp. 93–94.
  26. 1 2 Charney, Michael (2007). "Demographic Growth, Agricultural Expansion and Livestock in the Lower Chindwin in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries". In Greg Bankoff, P. Boomgaard (ed.). A history of natural resources in Asia: the wealth of nature. MacMillan. pp. 236–40. ISBN 978-1-4039-7736-6.
  27. ↑ King, Winston L. (2001). In the hope of Nibbana: the ethics of Theravada Buddhism. Vol. 2. Pariyatti. p. 295. ISBN 978-1-928706-08-3.
  28. 1 2 3 4 Richmond, Simon; Eimer, David; Karlin, Adam; Louis, Regis St; Ray, Nick (2017). Myanmar (Burma). Lonely Planet. ISBN 978-1-78657-546-3.
  29. ↑ Thaw Kaung (8 May 2014). "Myanmar Food: Traditional and Change". TODAY. Archived from the original on 7 May 2018. Retrieved 13 January 2021.
  30. ↑ Janssen, Peter (25 September 2012). "Good food in Rangoon, seriously". Yahoo! 7. Archived from the original on 27 September 2012. Retrieved 4 October 2012.
  31. ↑ "Burmese food: A brief introduction". Travelfish. Archived from the original on 29 May 2023. Retrieved 29 May 2023.
  32. 1 2 3 Ma Thanegi. "A World filled with Tea". Myanmar Times vol.6 no.113. Retrieved 1 April 2007.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)Category:CS1 maint: deprecated archival service
  33. 1 2 "The Travelling Gourmet". Myanmar Times no.37. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 1 April 2007.
  34. ↑ "ရှမ်းပဲပုပ် ရောင်းလိုအားထက်ဝယ်လိုအားများ – သတင်းများ". Myanmar National Trade Portal (in Burmese). Archived from the original on 14 January 2021. Retrieved 14 January 2021.Category:CS1 Burmese-language sources (my)
  35. ↑ "ပုံးရည်ကြီးလုပ်ငန်းများ ဈေးကွက်ချဲ့ထွင်ရန် နည်းပညာနှင့်ငွေကြေး အကူအညီပေးမည်". 7Day News – ၇ ရက်နေ့စဉ် သတင်း (in Burmese). 3 April 2017. Archived from the original on 16 January 2021. Retrieved 14 January 2021.Category:CS1 Burmese-language sources (my)
  36. 1 2 Tun, Ye Tint; IRIE, Kenji; SEIN, THAN; SHIRATA, Kazuto; TOYOHARA, Hidekazu; KIKUCHI, Fumio; FUJIMAKI, Hiroshi (2006), "Diverse Utilization of Myanmar Rice with Varied Amylose Contents", Japanese Journal of Tropical Agriculture, 50, Japanese Society for Tropical Agriculture, doi:10.11248/jsta1957.50.42, S2CID 83061804
  37. ↑ Robert, Claudia Saw Lwin; Pe, Win; Hutton, Wendy (4 February 2014). The Food of Myanmar: Authentic Recipes from the Land of the Golden Pagodas. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4629-1368-8.
  38. 1 2 3 4 Marks, Copeland; Thein, Aung (8 September 1994). The Burmese Kitchen: Recipes from the Golden Land. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9781590772607.
  39. ↑ "ဒံပေါက် (Biryani)". Food Magazine Myanmar (in Burmese). 12 September 2019. Archived from the original on 27 July 2020. Retrieved 25 April 2020.Category:CS1: unfit URLCategory:CS1 Burmese-language sources (my)
  40. ↑ "Top 10: Biryani Restaurants in Yangon". The Myanmar Times. 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 15 January 2021. Retrieved 25 April 2020.
  41. ↑ Sofia. "ထမင်းချဉ် (Shan Traditional Rice Cake)". Food Magazine Myanmar. Archived from the original on 18 December 2017.Category:CS1: unfit URL
  42. ↑ "သင်္ကြန်ထမင်းစားပြီး ရင်အေးကြစေဖို့". မဇ္ဈိမ မာလ်တီမီဒီယာ (in Burmese). 8 April 2017. Archived from the original on 25 February 2020. Retrieved 2 April 2018.Category:CS1 Burmese-language sources (my)
  43. 1 2 Myanmar-English Dictionary. Myanmar Language Commission. 1993. ISBN 1-881265-47-1. Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 14 January 2021.
  44. ↑ "တစ်နေ့တခြား လူကြိုက်များလာတဲ့ မြိတ်ဒေသအစားစာ ကတ်ကြေးကိုက်". Mizzima Myanmar News and Insight. Archived from the original on 24 October 2020. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
  45. ↑ "ပန်းသေးခေါက်ဆွဲ (Pan Thay Fried Noodle)". WE Media (in Burmese). Archived from the original on 23 December 2019. Retrieved 8 January 2021.Category:CS1 Burmese-language sources (my)
  46. ↑ "ကွေတာလန်းနဲ့ ဆီဥကြော်၊ မြန်မာပြည်က တရုတ်အစားအသောက်များ". BBC News မြန်မာ (in Burmese). Archived from the original on 15 January 2021. Retrieved 14 January 2021.Category:CS1 Burmese-language sources (my)
  47. ↑ Myanmar, Myfood (5 April 2016). "မုန့်ဟင်းခါး အကြောင်း သိကောင်းစရာ". MyFood Myanmar (in Burmese). Archived from the original on 9 January 2018. Retrieved 9 January 2021.Category:CS1 Burmese-language sources (my)
  48. ↑ "အရသာပြည့်စုံတဲ့ အုန်းနို့ခေါက်ဆွဲတစ်ပွဲ ဘယ်လို ချက်မလဲ". How to Cook (in Burmese). Archived from the original on 15 January 2021. Retrieved 14 January 2021.Category:CS1 Burmese-language sources (my)
  49. ↑ Gross, Matt (20 September 2012). "Burma Blossoms". AFAR. Archived from the original on 15 January 2013. Retrieved 14 January 2021.
  50. ↑ "ဘဲသား ကော်ရည်ခေါက်ဆွဲ". Wutyee Food House (in Burmese). 21 March 2012. Archived from the original on 5 July 2012. Retrieved 14 January 2021.Category:CS1 Burmese-language sources (my)
  51. ↑ Thiha Htun (2 August 2017). "ရှမ်းခေါက်ဆွဲကို ကိုယ်တိုင်လုပ်စားကြမယ်". Duwun (in Burmese). Archived from the original on 14 January 2021. Retrieved 14 January 2021.Category:CS1 Burmese-language sources (my)
  52. ↑ "နန်းကြီးသုပ် ပြုလုပ်နည်း". MyFood Myanmar (in Burmese). 19 August 2018. Archived from the original on 21 August 2018. Retrieved 14 January 2021.Category:CS1 Burmese-language sources (my)
  53. ↑ "စမူဆာသုပ်‌". WE (in Burmese). Archived from the original on 11 January 2021. Retrieved 9 January 2021.Category:CS1 Burmese-language sources (my)
  54. ↑ "Burmese curry restaurants". Austin Bush. 5 December 2012. Archived from the original on 9 January 2021. Retrieved 8 January 2021.
  55. ↑ Myanmar, Myfood (11 December 2015). "ဝက်သားသုံးထပ်သား ဆီပြန်ဟင်း". MyFood Myanmar (in Burmese). Archived from the original on 10 January 2021. Retrieved 8 January 2021.Category:CS1 Burmese-language sources (my)
  56. ↑ "Bachelor's Chicken Curry". Burmalicious. Archived from the original on 30 October 2020. Retrieved 8 January 2021.
  57. ↑ "မဆလာနံ့သင်းသင်း ဆိတ်သားဟင်းတစ်ခွက်". How to Cook (in Burmese). Archived from the original on 9 January 2021. Retrieved 8 January 2021.Category:CS1 Burmese-language sources (my)
  58. ↑ "လျှာရင်းမြက်စေမယ့် နူးနူးအိအိ ငါးသလောက်ပေါင်း". How to Cook (in Burmese). Archived from the original on 9 January 2021. Retrieved 8 January 2021.Category:CS1 Burmese-language sources (my)
  59. ↑ "ကြက်သား ပလာတာ". Wutyee Food House (in Burmese). 3 September 2010. Archived from the original on 7 September 2013. Retrieved 14 January 2021.Category:CS1 Burmese-language sources (my)
  60. ↑ "လှည်းတန်းတစ်ဝိုက်မုန့်စားကြမယ်". Yangon Life (in Burmese). Archived from the original on 14 January 2021. Retrieved 14 January 2021.Category:CS1 Burmese-language sources (my)
  61. ↑ Travel, D. K. (20 September 2016). DK Eyewitness Myanmar (Burma) Travel Guide. Penguin. ISBN 978-1-4654-5982-4.
  62. ↑ "အစိမ်းကြော် ပူပူလေး ကြော်စားကြရအောင်". WE (in Burmese). Archived from the original on 10 July 2018. Retrieved 14 January 2021.Category:CS1 Burmese-language sources (my)
  63. ↑ "သထုံငါးပေါင်းထုပ်နှင့် ထမင်းဝါ". MDN – Myanmar DigitalNews (in Burmese). Archived from the original on 16 January 2021. Retrieved 14 January 2021.Category:CS1 Burmese-language sources (my)
  64. ↑ "("၀" အစီအစဉ်) "အစားအစာ" ရှမ်းဝက်သားချဉ်ပြုလုပ်နည်းနဲ့ကြက်သားချဉ်စော်ခါးသီးဟင်းရည်". Myanma Radio and Television (in Burmese). Archived from the original on 14 January 2021. Retrieved 14 January 2021.Category:CS1 Burmese-language sources (my)
  65. ↑ Kime, Tom (18 February 2008). Asian Bites: A Feast of Flavors from Turkey to India to Japan. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-7566-4326-3.
  66. ↑ "မုန့်လက်ဆောင်း". Yangon Life. Archived from the original on 26 March 2019. Retrieved 26 March 2019.
  67. ↑ "မြန်မာ့ ရိုးရာ စားစရာ ပုသိမ် ဟလဝါ". မြဝတီ (in Burmese). Retrieved 15 November 2019.Category:CS1 Burmese-language sources (my)Category:All articles with dead external linksCategory:Articles with dead external links from March 2023Category:Articles with permanently dead external links[permanent dead link]
  68. ↑ "အုန်းနို့ငှက်ပျောပေါင်း". Yangon Life (in Burmese). Archived from the original on 15 January 2021. Retrieved 14 January 2021.Category:CS1 Burmese-language sources (my)
  69. ↑ "DATA ANALYSIS OVERVIEW OF THE FRUIT SECTOR IN MYANMAR". Food and Fertilizer Technology Center. Archived from the original on 15 January 2021. Retrieved 14 January 2021.
  70. ↑ Kyaing, May Sandar; Thandar, San; Myint, Moe Moe; Wai, Khaing Phyo; Htwe, Honey Thet Paing; Nyein, Chan Myae; Han, Jeung-Sul; Naing, Aung Htay (March 2023). "Characterization of Fruit Quality Traits and Biochemical Properties in Different Myanmar Mango Cultivars during Ripening Stages". International Journal of Plant Biology. 14 (1): 14–27. doi:10.3390/ijpb14010002. ISSN 2037-0164.
  71. ↑ "Current situation of banana R&D in Myanmar". Advancing Banana and Plantain R&D in Asia and the Pacific. 13: 97–99. November 2004.
  72. 1 2 Schweitzer, Sharon (7 April 2015). Access to Asia: Your Multicultural Guide to Building Trust, Inspiring Respect, and Creating Long-Lasting Business Relationships. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-91902-6.
  73. ↑ "မုန့်လက်ဆောင်း". Yangon Life (in Burmese). 15 April 2016. Archived from the original on 16 July 2019. Retrieved 14 January 2021.Category:CS1 Burmese-language sources (my)
  74. ↑ "Coffee and tea connect daily life of the locals". The Myanmar Times. 30 January 2018. Archived from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2021.
  75. ↑ "I toddy you so". The Myanmar Times. 25 May 2018. Archived from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2021.
  76. ↑ "Shan moonshine maker captures the Kachin spirit". Myanmar Mix. Archived from the original on 21 January 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2021.
  77. 1 2 "Chin State". MYANMORE. 26 July 2020. Archived from the original on 29 January 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2021.
  78. 1 2 "Myanmar's Evolving Tea Culture". Myanmar Insider. 21 June 2018. Archived from the original on 25 June 2018. Retrieved 16 January 2021.
  79. ↑ "The Rich Culture and Tradition of Tea in Myanmar". MVA. 5 October 2015. Archived from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2021.
  80. ↑ Kraig, Bruce; Ph.D, Colleen Taylor Sen (9 September 2013). Street Food around the World: An Encyclopedia of Food and Culture: An Encyclopedia of Food and Culture. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-955-4.
  81. ↑ "Top 10: Street Foods". The Myanmar Times. 14 June 2019. Archived from the original on 31 October 2022. Retrieved 16 January 2021.
  82. ↑ "Street vendors to be banned on Yangon's busiest roads". The Myanmar Times. 17 November 2016. Archived from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2021.
  83. ↑ Smith-Forbes, Charles James Forbes (1878). British Burma and Its People: Being Sketches of Native Manners, Customs, and Religion. J. Murray.
  84. ↑ Eyewitness, D. K. (20 September 2016). DK Eyewitness Myanmar (Burma). Penguin. ISBN 978-0-7440-2350-3.

Further reading

Category:Burmese cuisine#%20 Category:Culture of Myanmar#Cuisine Category:Southeast Asian cuisine#Burma
Category:All Wikipedia articles written in British English Category:All articles to be expanded Category:All articles with dead external links Category:Articles containing Burmese-language text Category:Articles to be expanded from January 2021 Category:Articles with dead external links from March 2023 Category:Articles with excerpts Category:Articles with permanently dead external links Category:Articles with short description Category:Burmese cuisine Category:CS1: unfit URL Category:CS1 Burmese-language sources (my) Category:CS1 maint: deprecated archival service Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata Category:Culture of Myanmar Category:Pages with Burmese IPA Category:Region topic template using suffix Category:Short description is different from Wikidata Category:Southeast Asian cuisine Category:Use British English from November 2015 Category:Use dmy dates from November 2015