Jalayirid

Jalayirid Sultanate
جلایریان
1335–1432
The Jalayirid state at its greatest territorial extent in 1374, before the Timurid invasions
The Jalayirid state at its greatest territorial extent in 1374, before the Timurid invasions
Capital
Common languages
Religion
Islam[6]
GovernmentMonarchy
Preceded by		Succeeded by
Ilkhanate
Timurid Empire
Qara Qoyunlu
Today part of

The Jalayirid Sultanate (Persian: جلایریان, romanized: JalāyiriyānCategory:Articles containing Persian-language text), also Ilka dynasty or Ilkanids,[7] was a Mongol dynasty[8] which ruled over modern-day Iraq and western Iran after the breakup of the Ilkhanate in the 1330s.[9] It expanded for about fifty years, until disrupted by Timur's conquests and the revolts of the Qara Qoyunlu Turkoman. After Timur's death in 1405, there was a brief attempt to re-establish the sultanate in southern Iraq and Khuzistan. The Jalayirids were finally eliminated by the Qara Qoyunlu in 1432.[10][11]

The Jalayirids originated from the Jalayir tribe,[12][13] which was a prominent Mongolian tribe[9] hailing from the area of the River Onon in eastern Mongolia,[14] but in the 14th century in the Middle East they became "largely Turkicized or at least Turkish-speaking".[5] They are credited with bolstering Turkic influence in Arabic-speaking Iraq so much so that Turkic became the second-most-spoken language after Arabic.[5] Still, the Jalayirid bureaucracy used Mongolian, Arabic and Persian in its documents.[1] The Jalayirids were great contributors to Persianate culture: their role as artistic patrons marks an important period in the evolution of Persian art, where it developed major aspects that would serve as the basis of later Persian paintings.[15]

History

Jalayirid dynasty, and contribution from the line of Genghis Khan.[16]

The dynasty was also called the "Ilka dynasty" or "Ilkanids" after Hasan Buzurg's great-grandfather Ilka Noyan.[7]

The history of the Sultanate of Jalayirid can be divided into four phases:

  • The first phase was during the early years when the dynasty was practically autonomous but theoretically accepted the authorization of the Ilkhanate state.
  • The second phase, corresponding to the rule of Shaykh Uways Jalayir (1356–1374), is the peak of the Jalayirids.
  • The third phase was a weakening period that began after the death of Uways.
  • The fourth phase was when the country became exposed to external attacks by Timur and the Qara Qoyunlu and where the dynasty came to an end.[10][17][9]

Early years

During the disintegration years of the Ilkhanate after the death of Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan in 1335, the family of emir Ilge (Īlgā) Noyan, known as Köke (Kukā, 'Blue') Ilge, descendants of the Jalayirid tribe, first emerged as the inheritors of the traditional governors of the southwestern lands of the Ilkhanate.[19] The Jalairs hailed from pasturelands along the River Onon in Mongolia and produced several military commanders during the Mongol era.[19] According to the Jami' al-tawarikh written by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, Ilge, who accompanied Hulegu on his great expedition to Western Asia in the 1250s, was among the generals who besieged the Assassins' strongholds in Qohestan in 1256. Besides, Ilge joined the expedition to Baghdad and was tasked with overseeing the rebuilding of the city after its siege in 1258.[19] Ilge Noyan served Hülegü until the khan's death in 1265.[19] When the Abaka khan came to the throne in 1265 and was identified as a senior emir, Ilge was in charge of the ordos ("royal headquarters").[19] Ilge was one of the main military leaders in conflicts with the Mamluks and Jochids, neighbors and opponents of the Ilkhanate, in Baghdad, Syria, Diyarbakir and the Caucasus.[11][10][20]

Ilka Noyan's sons Aq Buqa (Āqbuqā), Tughu were also in the service of Abaga khan. Aq Buqa, who was promoted to mir-e mirān (commander-in-chief) by Gaykhatu, was later assassinated by Baydu's supporters in 1295. He became the patron (murabbī) of Sadr al-Din Zanjani, Kaykhatu's grand vizier. Aq Buqa was married to Ghazan Khan's sister Ūljatāy Sulṭān, but after his death, his son Husain married his father's wife and took the title of gūrgān (greregen) or royal son-in-law.[9]

Husain first served Oljaitu and then Abu Sa'id, and took part in the march on Gilan in 1317. He was later appointed ruler of Arran in 1313 and died in Khorasan in 1322.

Hasan Buzurg (1335–1356)

After the death of Husain, his son Shaykh Hasan ("Hasan Buzurg", "Hasan The Great") became the head of the family. He was both the cousin of Abu Sa'id and the nephew of Amir Choban.[20][11][10]

Jalayirid equestrian combat scene, and branding or whipping of prisoners. Great Jalayirid Shāhnāma, Diez Albums, c. 1335–1355. SBB-PK, Diez A.[21]
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After defeating his rivals, Hasan Buzurg strengthened his ties with Muhammad Khan ("Pir Hussein"), who ruled Anatolia at the time. This reflected Hasan Buzurg's attempts to reestablish Chinggisid legitimacy, as Muḥammad Khan was a descendant of Hülegü through his son, Möngke Temür.[22] Hasan Buzurg then proceeded to Tabriz where he put Muhammad on the throne and married the granddaughter of Chupan and the wife of Abu Sa'id, Dilshad Khatun. Shaykh Ḥasan was the ‘biklārī bik [beglerbeg], or amīr al-umarā’’.[10][23]

For a short time in 1337–1338, Hasan Buzurg's authority was recognized in all parts of the Ilkhanate Empire except Khorasan, but after being expelled by Ḥasan-e Kucak and his brother Malek Ašraf in 1338–1339, he was forced to evacuate Azerbaijan and his power only held in Iraq. Shaikh Hasan became the lord of the powerful Mongol tribe of the Oirats in the 1340s, in their territories in Diyarbakr and northern Iraq.[24]

Hasan Buzurg died in July 1356 and was buried in Najaf. He was succeeded by his son, Shaikh Uways Jalayir.[25][26][27]

The Great Jalayirid Shāhnāma

The first Jalayirid ruler, Shaykh Hasan-i Buzurg (r. 1340–1356) ruled initially from Baghdad, but then obtained the control of Tabriz right after the death of Abu Sa'id, where he was able to set up a puppet Ilkhanid khan in the person of Muhammad Khan. After losing out to the Chobanids, Shaykh Hasan-i Buzurg returned to Baghdad, probably with some of the most important manuscripts of the Ilkhanid atelier.[28] Post-Ilkhanid manuscripts are notably difficult to date, but one of their technical characteristic is the use of the margin with accompanying text, unknown in any pre-Jalayirid manuscript.[28] One of these works is the Great Jalayirid Shāhnāma (Istanbul, TSMK, H. 2153), parts of which were likely created in the 1340s-1350s during the rule of Hasan Buzurg (especially one scene of combat on horse, and one scene showing the capture of prisoners), while other parts date to Shaykh Uvays (1356–74).[28]

Shaykh Uways period (1356–1374)

Territory of the Jalayirids  , Chobanids   and Muzaffarid   in 1353
Extent of Jalayirid   and Muzaffarid   territories in 1374
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According to historian Patrick Wing, while the Jalayirid sultans sought to preserve the social and political order of the Ilkhanate, they claimed to be the legitimate heirs of the rule of this order. At the center of Jalayirid claims to Ilkhanid heritage was their attempt to control Azerbaijan, the main center of the Ilkhanate. This province represented the symbolic heritage and material wealth of the Ilkhanate and became the focus of the Jalayirid political program.[11]

The Jaliyirids were inheritors of the political and constitutional framework established by Chinggis Khan and his descendants, and Shaykh Uways considered himself as "resurector of the traditions of the Changizkhanid state, unfurler of the banners of the Sacred Law of the Prophet, kindler of the flame of the Muhammadan faith, distinguished by the support of God, Lord of the worlds".[29]

Shortly after Shaykh Uways Jalayir succeeded his father, the Chobanids (old rivals of the Jalayrids) were overrun by the forces of the Golden Horde under Jani Beg in 1356-57. Jani Beg occupied the Georgian capital of Tiflis in 1356, and issued his own coinage there, followed by the coinage of his son Berdi Beg Juchid.[30] Then the Chobanid ruler Malek Asraf was executed and Azerbaijan was conquered by the Jalayrids.

Isfandiyar’s Haft Khvān (Seven Labors), Great Jalayirid Shāhnāma, attr. Ahmad Musa by an inscription, Tabriz or Baghdad, ca. 1370–74. Folio, TSMK, H. 2153

Following Jani Beg's withdrawal from Azerbaijan, as well as his son Berdi Beg’s similar abandonment of the region in 1358, the area became a prime target for its neighbors. Shaykh Uways Jalayir, who at first had recognized the sovereignty of the Blue Horde, decided to take the former Chobanid lands for himself, even as a former amir of Malek Asraf’s named Akhichuq attempted to keep the region in Mongol hands. The Jalayirids occupied the Georgian capital Tiflis in 1357-1358, where they also minted their own coinage in the name of Shaykh Uways Jalayir.[30][31]

The northern campaign ended prematurely, and in 1359 the Muzaffarid ruler Shah Shoja managed to occupy Azerbaijan and Arran for four months, briefly capturing Tabriz, the capital city of the Jalayirids.[32] Shah Shoja was forced to turn back when internal conditions in Fars deteriorated: his second brother's son, Shah Yahya, had risen in revolt in Isfahan.[33] Shah Shoja had to make peace with the Jalayirids, and offered to marry his son Zain al-Abidin to a sister of Shaikh Hussain Jalayir. The Jalayirids refused the offer and invaded the territory held by the Muzaffarids, although Shah Shoja managed to prevent them from getting any further than Soltaniyeh. Shaykh Uways Jalayir reconquered Azerbaijan with its capital of Tabriz in 1360.[34] In addition to Baghdad, he could now boast Tabriz as a large city under his control.[35][9][10][11]

In Tabriz, Shaykh Uvays built a palace complex known as the dawlat-khāna ("House of Fortune"), the main building of the Jalayirid period. It was the royal residence and the center of administration.[36] Clavijo described the dawlat-khāna as a great palace with twenty thousand rooms.[36]

Amongst these edifices there was a great house, which was surrounded by a wall, very beautiful and rich, in which there are twenty thousand chambers and apartments; and they say that this house was built by a ruler of Persia, named Sultan Veis; with the treasure that was paid him, as tribute, by the Sultan of Babylon. He called this house Tolbatgana which means "the house of fortune". This house is well built.

— Ruy González de Clavijo, Narrative of the embassy.[37]

The Khan Mirjan complex, built by the Jalayirid Governor of Baghdad in 1356-58.

In Baghdad, the Jalayirid governor Marjan b. Abdallah built the Khan Mirjan complex (kulliya) between 1357 and 1359. It had many decoration and inscribed panels made by local artists, especially works by the calligrapher and illuminator Ahmad Shah, known as the "Golden Pen" (zarrin qalam) of Tabriz.[38]

In 1364, Shaykh Uways Jalayir campaigned against the Shirvan Shah Kai-Ka’us, but a revolt begun by the governor of Baghdad, Khwaja Mirjan, forced him to return to reassert his authority. That same year, he occupied Shiraz, capital of the Muzaffarid Shah Shoja, in support of his rival brother Shah Mahmud, and struck coins in his own name in the southern city.[39] In 1366, Shaykh Uways Jalayir marched against the Qara Qoyunlu, defeating their leader, Bairam Khwaja, at the battle of Mush.[40] Later, he defeated the Shirvanshah, who had attacked Tabriz twice in the meantime.[40] According to Zayn al- Dīn Qazvīnī and Ḥāfiẓ Abrū, Kā’ūs readily overpowered all of Shirvan and Darband for Shaykh Uways Jalayir, and remained a faithful servant as long as he lived. After the death of Kā’ūs, Shaykh Uways Jalayir confirmed his son, Hūshang, as the successor of Shirvanshahs.[11]

Due to his campaigns, Shaykh Uways Jalayir spent much time in Iran, and he died in Tabriz in 1374.[41] During his lifetime, the Jalayirid state reached its peak in power. In addition to his military adventures, which were considerable, he was known for his attempts to revive commercial enterprise, which had suffered heavily in the past years, in the region, as well as his patronage to the arts.[41] His chronicler, Abu Bakr al-Qutbi al Ahri, wrote of Shaykh Uways Jalayir’ deeds in the Tarikh-i Shaikh Uvais. Shaykh Uways Jalayir was succeeded by his son Shaikh Hasan Jalayir.[41] He appointed his son Hassan as his successor in Baghdad. After his death the power of the dynasty began to weaken sharply.[42][43][9][41]

Art of the book

Kalila and Dimna, The Monkey and the Tortoise and The hunter and the gazelle animal fables. Kalila and Dimna (1370-74), Tabriz. Tentatively attributed to Ahmad Musa.[44]
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The Jalayirids led some of the most important changes in Persian art, at the junction between the creations of the Il-Khanate in the 13-14th century, and those of the Safavids in the 16th century.[45] They contributed to the formation of Persian miniatures, especially through the introduction of Chinese-inspired natural landscapes.[46] According to Ernst J. Grube, Jalayirid painting was the source of "modern" Persian-Islamic painting.[47] The characteristics of the Jalayirid school of miniatures were lyrical scenes with elegant small figures in lavish interiors or lush natural surroundings, painted in pastel colors.[47] The subject matters were generally poetic, rather than epic.[47]

Shaykh Uvays (r. 1356–74), the son of Shaykh Hasan-i Buzurg, campaigned successfully against the Qara Qoyunlu, the Shirvan-Shah, the Golden Horde and the Muzaffarids, expanding from Baghdad to Azerbaijan and establishing his capital in Tabriz until the end of his reign.[28] But he was also a great sponsor of the arts, and was described as a refined and artistic ruler, himself capable in various arts.[28] The majority of the paintings of the Great Jalayirid Shāhnāma are attributed to his reign.[28] He is also credited with a remarkable Kalila and Dimna, dated to 1370-74 (Istanbul University Library F.1422).[28]

Naturalism and realism

In the realm of Persian painting, the Jalayirid period is considered a bridge between the Great Mongol Shahnameh and the apex of Persian painting during the Timurid and Safavid periods.[48] During the reign of the Jalayirids, new developments were introduced to Persian art, including taking inspiration from Chinese painting, changes in the depiction of nature, and the usage of margins for additions to paintings.[48] Due to these innovations, the Great Jalayirid Shahnameh, along with other works of the Jalayirid era, was a primary inspiration for later Persian artists, and have thus been called a “source” of modern Persian painting.[48] Bernard O’Kane has further argued that, due to its depth of imagery, texture, and placement of figures, the Great Jalayirid Shahnameh was a pinnacle of Persian painting, matching the masterpieces of the Timurid and Safavid eras.[49] Despite their influence, remarkably few dated manuscripts survive from the Jalayirid period, and efforts to understand the nature and extent of artistic production under the dynasty are ongoing.[48]

Romanticism
The Jalayirid Khamsa of Nizami (British Library, Or.13297) is the earliest known illustrated manuscript of the Khamsa of Nizami. Baghdad, 1386-88.[50]

The Jalayirid Sultanate at the beginning of rule of Sultan Ahmad Jalayir experimented with some of the most significant evolutions in the literature of the period, moving from the monumental and epic character of the Shahmanahs towards more romantic and poetic illustrated manuscripts.[51] One such pivotal creation is the Khamsa of Nizami (British Library, Or.13297), the earliest securely dated illustrated copy of the Khamsa of Nizami.[52] It was created in 1386–88 in Baghdad, for Sultan Ahmad Jalayir.[53][54] A few years later, the 1396 Khamsah of Khvaju Kirmani (British Library, Add 18113), also created in Jalayirid Baghdad, already reached some of the highest artistic levels, with full-page romantic art.[51]

Later influences

It is known that some illustrated manuscripts of the Jalayirids were copied and emulated by the Timurids. A written remark by Dust Muhammad mentions that the Timurid ruler Baysunghur ordered a book to be made with the exact same specifications (dimensions, arrangement of text, illustrations) as a Jalayirid original.[55] In the 16th century, Dust Muhammad described the Timurid Baysunghur's efforts at emulating Jalayirid art, after his occupation of Tabriz in 1421 and capture of artists from Tabriz:

His Highness Baysunghur Mirza had Master Sidi Ahmad the painter, Khwaja Ali the portraitist and Master Qiwamuddin the bookbinder brought from Tabriz and ordered that after the pleasing manner of Sultan Ahmad of Baghdad's miscellany, they should produce a book in exactly the same format and layout and with the same scenes depicted. The copying of it was given into the charge of Mawlana Fariduddin Ja 'far. The binding was commissioned of the aforementioned Master Qiwamuddin, by whom inlay in bindings was invented; and Mir Khalil was put in charge of decoration and depiction of scenes.

— Preface to the Bahram Mirza Album (extract), by Dust Muhammad (1544).[56]

Later manuscripts such as the Mihr u Mushtari (1419), which is generally considered as the first instance of Turkman style, seem to be highly indebted to earlier Jalayirid manuscripts, such as the 1386-88 Khamsa of Nizami (British Library, Or.13297), or the 1396 Khamsah of Khvaju Kirmani (British Library, Add 18113), both created in Baghdad: the depictions of Faridun on horseback in Or.13297 (fol. 19a), or the attitude of the Payk groom looking backward in Add 18113 (fol. 85r), are almost exactly reproduced in the 1419-20 Mihr u Mushtari manuscript.[57]

Nastaliq calligraphy

Jalayirid manuscripts also demonstrate some of the earliest uses of Nastaliq calligraphy. They appear in the 1396 Khamsah by Khvaju Kirmani, created in Baghdad.[58] The new calligraphy was further disseminated by the calligrapher Farid al-Din Jafar of Tabriz at the Timurid court of Baysunghur.[58]

Decline

As soon as Shaikh Hussain Jalayir (ruled 1374-1382) started his reign, Tabriz was raided by the Muzaffarids, hailing from Isfahan.[60] In 1376, Shaikh Hussain Jalayir finally took up residence in Tabriz.[61] In the following spring, he undertook a successful campaign against the Qara Qoyunlu under Bayram Khwaja, who had been raiding from the west.[61]

Shaikh Hussain Jalayir lost his supporters because of the external enemies and conflicts within the amirs. His brother Sultan Ahmad Jalayir came to power as a result of a plot against him.[61] Sultan Ahmad advanced with an armed force from Ardabil, captured Tabriz, and executed his brother.[61] Ahmad's other brothers, Shaikh 'Ali and Bayazid opposed him. To secure his position, Ahmad requested the assistance of the Kara Koyunlu ruler Qara Mahammad.[61] Shaikh 'Ali fell in battle against the Kara Koyunlu.[11]

In the spring of 1384, the Chagatai amir Timur attacked the Jalayirids and Qara Qoyunlus of Azerbaijan. Although Sultan Ahmad was not captured, his subordinates in Soltaniyeh failed to defend the town and Timur took it with a minimum of resistance.[62]

In the midst of Timur's absence, Sultan Ahmad had to deal with an invasion by Tokhtamysh, Khan of the Golden Horde in 1385.[62] Tabriz was briefly looted by the Golden Horde in 1385.

Loss of Tabriz (1386-1405) and Baghdad (1393) to the Timurids

Jalayirid, Qara Qoyunlu and Timurid territories in 1400.[63]

The 1385 Golden Horde raid of Tabriz had significantly weakened Ahmad's position and so he could not combat Timur when he attacked with his Chagatai army in 1386. Tabriz was captured by Timur, who encamped in Sham-Azam and levied a new tax on the inhabitants.[64] Adil Aqa collected the tribute but was executed by Timur, who suspected him of corruption. Azerbaijan from this point on remained in the control of the Timurids, as Ahmad could not recover the province. The region from Azerbaijian to Darband was entrusted to Timur's son Miran Shah in 1392, with Tabriz as the capital.[64]

In 1393, Timur destroyed the Muzaffarids in the Battle of Shiraz (1393), and then renewed his campaigns against the Jalayirids and captured Baghdad (1393), and Ahmad Jalayir fled the city and sought refuge with the Mamluk Sultanate.[19] Timur captured Ahamd Jalayir's son Ala-al-Dawla and numerous artists and scholars who he brought to Samarkand.[19] Ahmad Jalayir first went to Damascus, and later to Cairo, where he was received by the Mamluk sultan Barquq. The Mamluks were rivals of Timur, so offering Ahmad Jalayir protection was politically useful in opposing Timurid expansion. The Mamluk army accompanied Ahmad Jalayir back to his lands, leading to the successful capture of Baghdad (1394). Besides this episode, from 1386 to 1401, Ahmad Jalayir was essentially based in Baghdad.[65][66]

In 1395, Miran Shah became insane in Tabriz, committing unwarranted excecutions and destructions.[67][64] Miran Shah attempted to capture Baghdad in 1398, but in vain.[19] Timur, upon returning from his 1398–1399 Indian campaign, went immediately to Azerbaijian and executed Miran Shah's supporters in 1399-1400.[64]

The Timurids would hold onto Tabriz and its region for 4 more years, Tabriz now under the rule of Miran Shah's son Mirza Umar (1383–1407).[68][64]

Loss of Baghdad to the Timurids (1401–1405)

Likely depiction of an unspecified marriage of Sultan Ahmad Jalayir (shown here leaving the nuptial room) in Baghdad. Painted by Junayd, Khamsah by Khvaju Kirmani (1396, Baghdad).[69][70][71] This is "the most firmly dated illustrated and high-quality Jalayirid manuscript".[72]
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In 1401, Baghdad, then under Ahmad Jalayir, revolted. Timur was campaigning in Syria, and Sultan Ahmad chose to abandon Baghdad beforehand, this time take refuge with the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I.[19] Timur moved to launch an offensive, and captured the city in the siege of Baghdad (1401). The city suffered a devastating sack with large-scale destruction and massacres.[68] Timur besieged Baghdad for forty days and then massacred its inhabitants for resisting.[73] The Mongol army looted the treasury and razed much of the city, except for mosques and madrasas.[74] Contemporaries reported that each Mongol soldier was ordered to bring at least one severed head of an inhabitant. Pyramids were made with the skulls of the defenders.[19] Only one out of a hundred of the city's inhabitants reportedly survived the massacre to be sold into slavery.[75]

In Baghdad in 1401 (or possibly earlier on the occasion of the Siege of Baghdad (1393), Dust Muhammad reports that Timur captured the Jalayirid miniature artist Khwaja Abdul-Hayy to bring him back to the Timurid court in Samarkand, where his style was then followed by local court artists:[76]

When the realm-conquering banners of Timur Kiiragan cast the ray of the caliphate in subjugating the realm of Baghdad, and he made that Abode of Peace the residence of the caliphal throne for a few days, Khwaja Abdul-Hayy was taken along with the celestial army to the Abode of the Sultanate Samarqand, where he died. After the Khwaja's death all masters imitated his works.

— Dust Muhammad, preface to Bahram Mirza Album (1544).[76][77]

The Jalayirid defenders of Siege of Baghdad (1401) appear in a Timurid miniature of the Zafarnama (Book of Victory) of 1436, as defenders on the walls of the city.

The Kara Koyunlu ruler Kara Yusuf too retreated to Mosul to avoid a sudden raid, and was able to take shelter in Damascus under the protection of the Ottoman sultan Bayezid I in 1401.[68][78] Qara Yusuf was welcomed by Sheikh Mahmud, the nâib of Damascus. Not long after, Sultan Ahmed Jalayir also came to Damascus. Not wanting to worsen relations with Amir Timur, Nasir-ad-Din Faraj agreed to capture Qara Yusuf and Sultan Ahmed Jalayir, and hand them over to Timur. Instead, Sultan Ahmad Jalayir and Qara Yusuf were imprisoned on the order of Nasir-ad-Din Faraj, the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt. Together in prison, the two leaders renewed their friendship, making an agreement that Sultan Ahmed Jalayir should keep Baghdad while Qara Yusuf would have Azerbaijan. Ahmad also adopted Qara Yusuf's son Pirbudag.

The hosting of Kara Yusuf by Bayezid I was one of the main reasons Timur then launched a campaign against the Ottomans. He was able to reach Damascus by escaping into the desert. Timur continued as he conquered Aleppo, Damascus and eastern Anatolia. In 1402 he defeated the Ottomans in the momentous Battle of Ankara, plunging the Ottoman Empire into a civil war.

Return to Baghdad (1405)

When Timur died in 1405 Nasir-ad-Din Faraj released Sultan Ahmad Jalayir and Qara Yusuf from captivity in Damascus.[67] However, according to Faruk Sümer, they were released on the orders of rebellious wali of Damascus – Sheykh Mahmud.[79][62]

Sultan Ahmad Jalayir, taking advantage of a local insurrection, finally managed to recapture the city of Baghdad with the help of Qara Yusuf leading his Qara Koyunlu troops.[67] He eliminated the administration of Mirza Ömer, son of Miran Shah, who had been in charge of ruling the city for the Timurids.[80]

On October 1406, Qara Yusuf defeated the Timurid prince Abu Bakr Mirza, son of Miran Shah, at the Battle of Nakhchivan (1406), taking back control of Tabriz. He advanced as far as Sultaniyya, taking the population of this town to Tabriz, Ardabil and Maragha.[81] Abu Bakr Mirza soon returned, but Qara Yusuf defeated him at Sardarud, south of Tabriz, where Miran Shah also fell in battle.[81] Qara Yusuf astutely put his own son on the throne of Tabriz, the young Pirbudag, who was also Ahmad Jalyir's adoptive son. Ahmad Jalyir appear to be satisfied with the choice, but eventually occupied Tabriz when Qara Yusuf was away in Armenia.[81]

Return to Tabriz, then loss to the Qara Qoyunlu (1405–1410)

Royal figure in Khusraw at the castle of Shirin (Freer Galery of Art). Tabriz, 1405-1410.

After expelling Qara Yusuf from Tabriz, Ahmad Jalayir would hold residence there between 1406 and 1410.[81][82]

While in Tabriz, Ahmad Jalayir is known for another remarkable illustrated manuscript, the Khosrow and Shirin (Freer Galery of Art).[83][84] The style of this work had much in common with the productions of Baghdad, the other Jalayirid capital, but with a higher degree of finition.[85]

In the fall of 1409, Qara Yusuf came back, entered Tabriz and sent a raiding party to Shirvan, especially Shaki, which was fruitless. Qara Yusuf defeated and killed the last great Jalayirid ruler Ahmad Jalayir in 1410.

Loss of Baghdad to the Qara Qoyunlu (1410)

Ahmad's nephew Shah Walad Jalayir briefly succeeded him in Baghdad but the Qara Qoyunlu soon captured the city. The illustrated manuscript Basatin al-uns (TSMK Ms. R. 1032) seems to have been created at the juncture of these events, and may be one of the last manuscripts created by the Jalayirids in Baghdad, since the dedication to Ahmad Jalayir seems to have been damaged by the invaders and the illustrations remained unfinished.[86] After the death of Sultan Ahmad Jalayir, some artist stayed in Tabriz, but others leaved for Isfahan and Shiraz, to work for another famous patron and bibliophile, the Timurid governor Iskandar Sultan, ruler of Fars from 1409 to 1414.[87]

A Jalayirid copy of a Delhi Sultanate manuscript depicting ruler Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq leading his troops in the capture of the city of Tirhut. Muhammad Sadr Ala-i in his work Basātin al-uns, 1410 copy of 1326 original, in Baghdad (Topkapi Palace Museum Library, Ms. R.1032).[88]

After 1410, the remnants of the Jalayirid dynasty were eventually pushed south into lower Iraq, ruling over the towns of Hillah, Wasit and Basra. In 1423, the penultimate ruler of the Jalayirid dynasty, Solṭān Moḥammad, son of Šāh Valad, was expelled from Shushtar by the Timurid Governor of Fars Ibrahim Sultan.[19] Solṭān Moḥammad had to flee to Wasit and then to al-Ḥella in southern Iraq, but from there he tried to besiege Baghdad in 1424, but failed and died July 1424.[19][19] The last Jalayerid ruler, Ḥosayn II ibn ʿAlāʾ-al-Dawla, lost internal support due to his licentious behavior.[19] His amirs invited in the Qarā Qoyunlu prince Aspān, who managed to capture al-Ḥella in October 1431.[19] Hosayn was pursued and finally killed on 9 November 1431, bringing a complete end to the dynasty.[7][89][20][11][10]

Government

The Jalayirid administration was modeled after Ilkhanate protocols, with documents in Persian and Mongolian.[4] Its diplomatic correspondence also resembled the Ilkhanate's, using a red ink square seal with Islamic phrases in Arabic.[4]

International influences in Jalayirid art

Jalayirid art was characterized by increased naturalism.[90] Parallels have been noted with the contemporary naturalistic Late Gothic trends, and cross-cultural exchanges, both with the Latin West and Chinese art have been suggested.[90] In effect, Christian communities of European merchants (Genoese, Venetian, Pisan, French, Catalan) had been thriving in the Ilkhanid capitals of Tabriz and Soltaniyeh, and although they faltered in the troubles after the end of the Ilkhanate and the Black Death (1348-1350), were still encouraged by the Jalayirid Sultan Uvays I through correspondence offering road security and reduced taxes.[91] The artist Dust Muhammad acknowledged China and Europe while describing the contributions of the great naturalistic artist Ahmad Musa, active at the end of the Ilkhanate and during the Jalayirid period:[92]

Autumn Landscape, a likely Jalayirid work in the Chinese manner. Tabriz or Baghdad, mid-14th century. TSMK, H. 2153.[93]

The custom of portraiture flourished in the lands of Cathay and the Franks until sharp-penned Mercury scrivened the rescript of rule in the name of Sultan Abusaʿid Khudaybanda. Master Ahmad Musa, who was his father’s pupil, lifted the veil from the face of depiction, and the [style of] depiction that is now current was invented by him. Among the scenes by him that lighted on the page of the world in the reign of the aforementioned emperor, an Abusaʿidnama, a Kalila u Dimna, a Miʿrajnama calligraphed by Mawlana Abdullah Sayrafi, and a Tarikh-i Chingizi in beautiful script by an unknown hand were in the library of the late emperor Sultan-Husayn Mirza

— Preface to the Bahram Mirza Album (extract), by Dust Muhammad (1544).[94].

Albums of the period, such as Saray Album H.2153 or Saray Album H.2160 often contain foreign work or works "in the manner of", complete with labelled inscriptions of as “Cathayan work” (kāri khaṭāy/khiṭāy) or “Frankish work” (kāri farang/firang).[95] One such example is the a Europeanizing ink and wash drawing, named Eight Figures in European Attire, a work "in the Frankish manner" in the European "grisaille" style, located next to works attributed to Ahmad Musa (H. 2153, fols. 55r, 54v).[96] Another Jalayirid work, named Celestial Vision, combines elements from the arts of Europe (a Christian scene of enlightenment, in the style of Taddeo Gaddi’s Annunciation to the Shepherds (1327–30) of Pietro Lorenzetti’s Stigmata of St. Francis (c. 1320), and China (a bent tree, a five-clawed two-horned imperial dragon, Chinese cloud bands).[97]

Rulers

Title/Name[98] Personal name Reign Coinage
Taj-ud-Din
تاج الدین 		Hasan Buzurg 1336–1356 Jalayrids coinage, time of Shaykh Hasan Buzurg. Baghdad mint. Dated AH 749? (AD 1348-9). Reverse legend al-sultan al-a‘zam /khan khallada mulkahu
Mu'izz-ud-duniya wa al-Din
معز الدنیا والدین
Bahadur Khan
بهادرخان 		Shaykh Uways Jalayir 1356–1374 Gold coin of Shaykh Uways I (1356-1374), Baghdad mint, dated AH 762 (AD 1360-1)
Jalal-ud-Din
جلال الدین 		Shaikh Hasan Jalayir 1374
Ghiyas-ud-Din
غیاث الدین 		Shaikh Hussain Jalayir 1374–1382 Coinage of Jalal al-Din Husayn I. Madinat al-Salam Baghdad mint. Dated AH [78]2 (AD 1381/2)
Shaikh Bayazid Jalayir
Ruler of Iraq-i 'Ajam at Soltaniyeh and contender for the throne		 1382–1384
Sultan
سلطان 		Sultan Ahmed Jalayir
Ruler of Iraq-i 'Arab at Baghdad and contender for the throne		 1382–1410 Coinage of Sultan Ahmad Jalayir. Baghdad mint. Dated AH 788 (1386-7)
Shah Walad Jalayir
son of Shaikh Ali Jalayir		 1410–1411[99]
Tandu Khatun 1411–1419[100]
Sultan
سلطان 		Mahmud bin Shah Walad Jalayir
under tutelage of Tandu Khatun		 1411–1415[99]
Sultan
سلطان 		Uwais II 1415–1421[99]
Sultan
سلطان 		Muhammad bin Shah Walad Jalayir 1421–1422[99]
Sultan
سلطان 		Mahmud II 1422–1424[99]
Hussain II 1424–1432[99]

Genealogy of House of Jalayir

House of Jalayir

  Jalayirid Sultanate

Hasan I
r. 1336–1356
Uways I
r. 1356–1374
Hasan II
r. 1374–1374		Husayn I
r. 1374–1382		Ali
r. 1378–1382		Bayazid
r. 1382–1384		Ahmad
r. 1382–1410
Shah-Walad
r. 1410–1411		Ala ad-Dawla
Mahmud
r. 1411–1419		Uways II
r. 1415–1421		Muhammad
r. 1425–1427		Husayn II
r. 1427–1432

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Green, Nile (9 April 2019). The Persianate World: The Frontiers of a Eurasian Lingua Franca. Univ of California Press. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-520-97210-0. The Jalayirid bureaucracy in Baghdad, at the heart of the "Middle East," issued documents in Arabic, Persian, and Mongolian.
  2. ↑ Jackson & Lockhart 1986, p. 978.
  3. ↑ Wing 2016, p. 18.
  4. 1 2 3 4 Broadbridge, Anne F. Kingship and Ideology in the Islamic and Mongol Worlds, (Cambridge University Press, 2008), 157.
  5. 1 2 3 Jackson & Lockhart 1986, p. 9 "In the period we are dealing with the Jalayirids were largely Turkicised, or at least Turkish-speaking; and they have been credited with establishing the Turkish element in Arabic Iraq on a firmer foundation so that Turkish became the language most commonly spoken after Arabic."
  6. ↑ Jackson, Peter, "JALAYERIDS", Encyclopedia Iranica, retrieved 2026-03-02, Although certain scholars have imputed Shiʿite sympathies to the Jalayerids, the strongest grounds for this view lie in the dynasty's preference for names such as ʿAli, Ḥasan and Ḥosayn and in the expressed desire of Ḥasan-e Bozorg to be buried in Najaf. It is true that Ḥasan-e Bozorg was also on excellent terms with Shaikh Ṣafi-al-Din, the ancestor of the later Safavid dynasty, at Ardabil, and that friendly relations with Ṣafi-al-Din's successors persisted under Šayḵ Ovays. Yet at this early stage it is doubtful whether the Ardabil order itself can be described as Shiʿite in any real sense. The evidence of Jalayerid coins, on the other hand, suggest a more Sunni stance: the overwhelming majority carry the names of the Orthodox Caliphs, and only rarely does a coin, like that struck by Ḥasan-e Bozorg at Āmol in 741/1340, bear the names of the Twelve Imams.
  7. 1 2 3 Jackson & Lockhart 1986, p. 5.
  8. ↑
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Bayne Fisher, William. The Cambridge History of Iran, p. 3: "From then until Timur's invasion of the country, Iran was under the rule of various rival petty princes of whom henceforth only the Jalayirids could claim Mongol lineage"
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Jackson, Peter (2008). "Jalayerids". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. XIV/4: Jade III–Jamalzadeh, Mohammad-Ali II. Work (Online ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation. pp. 415–419.Category:CS1: long volume value
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Wing 2016
  12. ↑ Wing 2016, p. 29 "The Jalayirid dynasty takes its name from Jalayir, the name of a Mongolian tribe from which it was descended."
  13. ↑ Jackson & Lockhart 1986, p. 5 "The name Jalayir is derived from that of a large and important Mongol tribe."
  14. 1 2 Jackson 2014 "...the Jalair (Jalāyer) tribe, which had occupied pasturelands along the River Onon in Mongolia prior to Genghiz (Čengiz) Khan’s time and produced several important military commanders during the Mongol era."
  15. ↑ Wing 2016, p. 185 Unique occurrence of "Persianate" in the whole book: "...considering the historical legacy of the Jalayirids without touching on their role as artistic patrons would be to ignore a central aspect of their contribution to the cultural history of Persianate society."
  16. ↑ Wing 2016, p. 231.
  17. ↑ Grousset, René (1970). The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0813513041.
  18. ↑ Atwood, Christopher P. Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. pp. 257, 390.
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Jackson 2014.
  20. 1 2 3 Ahari Kutbi, Abu Bakr; Baptist Van Loon, Johannes (1954). Ta'rīkh-i Shaikh Uwais : (History of Shaikh Uais) : An important source for the history of Adharbaijān in the fourteenth century. 's-Gravenhage.
  21. ↑ The Diez Albums: Contexts and Contents. BRILL. 14 November 2016. pp. 477–479. ISBN 978-90-04-32348-3. Jalayirid Diez Album Paintings: However, in the Diez albums there are several candidates for royal painting in the 1340s-1350s, in particular a series of illustrations from Shāhnāma-like epics. (...) This is exceeded in a couple of paintings that make use of the margin, a clear sign, as discussed above, of post-Ilkhanid painting. The second, showing four unhappy warriors lying down with buttocks exposed (fig. 17.7), looks to be a scene of punishment (although I am happy to accept the suggestion that Abolala Soudavar made while viewing the painting at the exhibition that it could be one of branding rather than whipping).
  22. ↑ Wing 2016, pp. 84–85.
  23. ↑ Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica. "Chobanidis". iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2021-10-10.
  24. ↑ Wing 2016, p. 74.
  25. ↑ Lane, George (2006). Daily life in the Mongol Empire. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 251. ISBN 978-0-313-33226-5.
  26. ↑ Mabud Khan, Abdul, ed. (2001). Encyclopaedia of the World Muslims: Tribes, Castes and Communities. Vol. 2. Global Vision. ISBN 978-8187746058.
  27. ↑ Fleet, Kate, ed. (2010). The Cambridge History of Turkey. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1139055963.
  28. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 O’Kane, Bernard (14 November 2016). The Diez Albums: Contexts and Contents. BRILL. pp. 469–480. ISBN 978-90-04-32348-3.
  29. ↑ Binbaş, Evrim (4 April 2022). "The Timurids and the Mongol Empire". The Mongol World. Taylor & Francis. pp. 936–937. doi:10.4324/9781315165172-75. ISBN 978-1-351-67631-1.
  30. 1 2 Dundua, Tedo; Avdaliani, Emil (2016). "Coins of Muslim Rulers Struck at Tbilisi Mint (General Overview)". Institute of Georgian History, Proceedings, Special Issue III. 11 (11): 570.
  31. ↑ Lang, David M. (1955). "Numismatic History of Georgia (Georgia under the Mongols)". ANS Numismatic Notes and Monographs. 128–132: 75. The most powerful of the minor dynasties which carved up the disrupted Il-Khanid empire was that of the Jala'irs, the descendants of Shaykh Hasan Buzurg. These princes made Baghdad their capital, but gained control over much of Persia and Transcaucasia. For a short time after the suppression of Anushirvan, the mints at Tiflis and at Qara-Aghach were under Jala'irid control. Dirhems struck in the name of Shaykh Hasan, and, apparently anonymously, by his successor Uwais were minted in both places in A.H. 757-8/ 1356-7.Category:CS1: long volume value
  32. ↑ Houtsma, T. (1993). First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913–1936. E.J. Brill. p. 798. ISBN 9789004097964. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  33. ↑ Limbert 2011, p. 39.Category:Harv and Sfn no-target errors
  34. ↑ Jackson & Lockhart 1986, p. 6 "In 761/1360 Uvais, who had at first recognised the overlordship of the Golden Horde, conquered Azarbaijan, which his father had lost to Shaikh Hasan-i Kuchak twenty years earlier."
  35. ↑ Dizadji, H (2010). Journey from Tehran to Chicago: My Life in Iran and the United States, and a Brief History of Iran. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 978-1426929182.
  36. 1 2 Wing 2016, p. 81.
  37. ↑ González de Clavijo, Ruy; Markham, Clements R. (Clements Robert) (1859). Narrative of the embassy of Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo to the court of Timour at Samarcand, A.D. 1403-6. London, Printed for the Hakluyt society. p. 89.
  38. ↑ Çağman, Fi̇Li̇Z; Tanindi, Zeren (2011). "Selections from Jalayirid Books in the Libraries of Istanbul". Muqarnas. 28: 222. ISSN 0732-2992.
  39. ↑ Çağman, Fi̇Li̇Z; Tanindi, Zeren (2011). "Selections from Jalayirid Books in the Libraries of Istanbul". Muqarnas. 28: 221. ISSN 0732-2992.
  40. 1 2 Jackson & Lockhart 1986, p. 6.
  41. 1 2 3 4 Jackson & Lockhart 1986, p. 7.
  42. ↑ Morgan, David (2015). Medieval Persia 1040–1797. Routledge. ISBN 978-1317415671.
  43. ↑ G. Browne, Edward (1926). A Literary History of Persia: The Tartar Dominion. ISBN 0-936347-66-X. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)Category:CS1 errors: ISBN date
  44. ↑ "AḤMAD MŪSĀ". Encyclopaedia Iranica.
  45. ↑ Wing 2016, p. 185 "Some of the most important changes in this distinctly Persian art form took place under the Jalayirids, bridging the masterpiece known as the Great Mongol Shāhnāma, produced in the late Ilkhanid period, with 15th and 16th century Timurid and Safavid painting, commonly considered the pinnacle of the Persian miniature form."
  46. ↑ Wing 2016, pp. 185–186.
  47. 1 2 3 Wing 2016, p. 186.
  48. 1 2 3 4 Wing 2016, p. 185–201
  49. ↑ O'Kane, Bernard (2017). "The Great Jalayirid Shahnama". In Gonnella, Julia; Weis, Friederike; Rauch, Christoph (eds.). The Diez Albums: Context and Content. Leiden: Brill. pp. 469–484. ISBN 978-90-04-32348-3.
  50. ↑ Graves, Margaret S. (1 January 2002). "Words and Pictures". Persica. 18 (0): 17–54. doi:10.2143/PERS.18.0.491. There has been very little research into the British Library's 1386-88 Khamseh ('Quintet') of Nizami (Or.13297), considering it is so far the earliest definitely dated illustrated version of this text to come to light.
  51. 1 2 "Persian Painting - Fourteenth Century". Marg. A Magazine of the Arts (Marg Publications, Bombay). 30 (1). Marg Publications: 55. 1976. The beginning of the period of the rule of Sultan Ahmad is distinguished by the production of some of the earliest manuscripts of romanic poetry notably that of Nizami (c. 1203 A.D.) and Khwaju Kirmani (c. 1352 A.D.). One manuscript (Or. 13297) of the Khamseh of Nizami (now in the British Library) is of great importance for bridging the gap between the monumental style of the earlier Shahnameh miniatures and the full-page romantic art of the Khwaju Kirmani manuscript of 1396 A.D. (Add. 18113) pages 54-55
  52. ↑ Graves 2002, pp. 17–54 "There has been very little research into the British Library’s 1386-88 Khamseh (‘Quintet’) of Nizami (Or.13297), considering it is so far the earliest definitely dated illustrated version of this text to come to light."
  53. ↑ Titley 1978, p. 165.
  54. ↑ Sajadi, Forough (2025). "The Timurid and Turkmen Period". The Persian miniatures collection of the Rijksmuseum: a hidden treasure trove. Leiden ; Boston: Brill. p. 58, note 29. ISBN 9789004716285.
  55. ↑ Soucek, Priscilla (1974). "Comments on Persian Painting". Iranian Studies. 7 (1/2): 73.
  56. ↑ Album prefaces and other documents on the history of calligraphers and painters (Paperback [edition] ed.). Leiden Boston: Brill. 2014. p. 13. ISBN 978-90-04-11961-1.
  57. ↑ Titley 1978, p. 167.
  58. 1 2 Sims, Eleanor (2002). Peerless images : Persian painting and its sources. New Haven : Yale University Press. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-300-09038-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)Category:CS1 maint: publisher location
  59. ↑ Soucek, Priscilla (1974). "Comments on Persian Painting". Iranian Studies. 7 (1/2): 76–78. ISSN 0021-0862. A more extreme example is provided by the copy of Khwajii Kirmanil's romantic epics prepared for Sultin Ahmad Jali'ir in 1396. (...) The painting of Sultan Malik-Shah and the Old Woman is primarily a depiction of the ruler and his entourage. The details of his retinue must reflect contemporary practice as they are unnecessary for the subject represented. (...) The incorporation of the images of patrons within the paintings themselves, suggests that manuscripts may have served as a vehicle for royal flattery or propaganda.
  60. ↑ Jackson & Lockhart 1986, pp. 7–8.
  61. 1 2 3 4 5 Jackson & Lockhart 1986, p. 8.
  62. 1 2 3 "Karakoyunlular – TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi". TDV İslam Ansiklopedisi (in Turkish). Retrieved 2021-10-10.Category:CS1 Turkish-language sources (tr)
  63. ↑ Munt, Harry (2017). The Jalayirids: Dynastic State Formation in the Mongol Middle East. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. Map 3. ISBN 978 1 4744 0225 5.
  64. 1 2 3 4 5 Bosworth 2007, p. 490.
  65. ↑ Encyclopaedia of Islam (Tabriz article) (2nd ed.). Brill. 2007. p. 44. ISBN 978-9004161214.
  66. ↑ Encyclopaedia of Islam (Tabriz article) (2nd ed.). Brill. 2007. p. 44. ISBN 978-9004161214.
  67. 1 2 3 Minorsky, V. (2000). "Tabriz". Encyclopaedia of Islam First Edition (PDF). Leiden Brill. p. 44. ISBN 90 04 11211 1.
  68. 1 2 3 Encyclopaedia of Islam (Tabriz article) (2nd ed.). Brill. 2007. p. 44. ISBN 978-9004161214.
  69. ↑ Blair, Sheila (2022). Text and Image in Medieval Persian Art. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 205. ISBN 9781474464499. The last of the illustrations in Humay and Humayun celebrates the consummation of the lovers' marriage (5.1), and many years ago Soucek suggested that the image might illustrate a specific marriage of Sultan Ahmad." (98. Soucek, 1974, 75–7.)
  70. ↑ Soucek, Priscilla (1974). "Comments on Persian Painting". Iranian Studies. 7 (1/2): 77–78. ISSN 0021-0862. It is possible that the painting refers to a specific marriage celebration of Ahmad Jala'ir, but it has not yet been possible to provide documentation of this connection. (...) The incorporation of the images of patrons within the paintings themselves, suggests that manuscripts may have served as a vehicle for royal flattery or propaganda.
  71. ↑ Blair, Sheila S. (1 June 2019). Text and Image in Medieval Persian Art. Edinburgh University Press. p. 220. ISBN 978-1-4744-6449-9. This copy of Khwaju's poems then had a long, colorful, and quite eventful life. Made perhaps as a momento to celebrate Ahmad Jalayir's return to Baghdad, the consummation of his marriage, and hence the continuing presence of the Jalayirid line, the manuscript and its illustrations have continued to delight readers and viewers down to the present...
  72. ↑ Sturkenboom, Ilse (2018). "The Paintings of the FreerDivanof Sultan Ahmad b. Shaykh Uvays and a New Taste for Decorative Design". Iran. 56 (2): 198. doi:10.1080/05786967.2018.1482727. ISSN 0578-6967. S2CID 194905114.
  73. ↑ Shterenshis, Michael (2013). Tamerlane and the Jews. Routledge. pp. 65–66. ISBN 978-1-136-87366-9.
  74. ↑ The Diez Albums: Contexts and Contents. BRILL. 14 November 2016. p. 490. ISBN 978-90-04-32348-3.
  75. ↑ Yehuda, Zvi (2017). The New Babylonian Diaspora: The Rise and Fall of the Jewish Community in Iraq, 16th-20th Centuries C.E. BRILL. p. 33. ISBN 978-90-04-35401-2.
  76. 1 2 Sims, Eleanor; Marshak, Boris Ilʹich; Grube, Ernst J. (1 January 2002). Peerless Images: Persian Painting and Its Sources. Yale University Press. p. 262. ISBN 978-0-300-09038-3.
  77. ↑ Album prefaces and other documents on the history of calligraphers and painters (Paperback [edition] ed.). Leiden Boston: Brill. 2014. p. 13. ISBN 978-90-04-11961-1.
  78. ↑ "Karakoyunlular –TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi". TDV İslam Ansiklopedisi (in Turkish). Retrieved 2021-10-10.Category:CS1 Turkish-language sources (tr)
  79. ↑ Muir, William (2010). The Mameluke Or Slave Dynasty of Egypt 1260–1517 A.D. Nabu Press. ISBN 978-1142162863.
  80. ↑ Cristea, Ovidiu; Pilat, Liviu (29 January 2020). From Pax Mongolica to Pax Ottomanica: War, Religion and Trade in the Northwestern Black Sea Region (14th-16th Centuries). BRILL. p. 136. ISBN 978-90-04-42244-5.
  81. 1 2 3 4 Bosworth 2007, p. 491.
  82. ↑ Encyclopaedia of Islam (Tabriz article) (2nd ed.). Brill. 2007. p. 44. ISBN 978-9004161214.
  83. ↑ Sims, Eleanor (2002). Peerless images : Persian painting and its sources. New Haven : Yale University Press. pp. 290–292. ISBN 978-0-300-09038-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)Category:CS1 maint: publisher location
  84. ↑ Hasanzade et al. 2021, p. 78.
  85. ↑ Hasanzade et al. 2021, p. 80 "The Khosrow and Shirin Manuscript of 1405–1410 (...) Hailing the miniatures as “the first brilliant piece of the 15th century”, Stchoukine compared them with the rather more average products of late Jalayirid Baghdad workshops and concluded that “despite a similarity of types and individual images, both landscape- and architecture-wise, as well as types of compositional uniformity, the Tabriz miniatures differ in enjoying a higher technical completion... The drawing is now finer, the lines more elegant and features more exquisite. Architectural decorations retain features of the past, but add details like the extravaganza of colours that buildings had so badly lacked... The artists had learned to group their characters with greater mastery..."
  86. ↑ Çağman, Fi̇Li̇Z; Tanindi, Zeren (2011). Selections from Jalayirid Books in the Libraries of Istanbul. p. 232.
  87. ↑ Titley 1978, p. 166.
  88. ↑ Çağman, Filiz; Tanindi, Zeren (2011). "Selections from Jalayirid Books in the Libraries of Istanbul" (PDF). Muqarnas. 28: 230, 258 Fig.56. ISSN 0732-2992. JSTOR 23350289.
  89. ↑ Piran McClary, Richard; Peacock, A.C.S. (2010). Turkish History and Culture in India: Identity, Art and Transregional Connections. Brill. ISBN 978-9004437364.
  90. 1 2 Neci̇poğlu, Gülru (2017). Persianate Images between Europe and China: The “Frankish Manner” in the Diez and Topkapı Albums, c. 1350–1450. p. 537.
  91. ↑ Neci̇poğlu, Gülru (2017). Persianate Images between Europe and China: The “Frankish Manner” in the Diez and Topkapı Albums, c. 1350–1450. p. 536.
  92. ↑ Necipoğlu, Gülru (17 February 2026). "The Jalayirid Contribution: A Topkapi Palace Album with Images in the Persianate, Chinese, and European Manners (Ca. 1350–1500)". Ars Orientalis. 55 (0). doi:10.3998/ars.9312. ISSN 2328-1286.
  93. ↑ Necipoğlu, Gülru (17 February 2026). "The Jalayirid Contribution: A Topkapi Palace Album with Images in the Persianate, Chinese, and European Manners (Ca. 1350–1500)". Ars Orientalis. 55 (0). doi:10.3998/ars.9312.
  94. ↑ Album prefaces and other documents on the history of calligraphers and painters (Paperback [edition] ed.). Leiden Boston: Brill. 2014. pp. 12–13. ISBN 978-90-04-11961-1.
  95. 1 2 Neci̇poğlu, Gülru (2017). Persianate Images between Europe and China: The “Frankish Manner” in the Diez and Topkapı Albums, c. 1350–1450. p. 539.
  96. ↑ Neci̇poğlu, Gülru (2017). Persianate Images between Europe and China: The “Frankish Manner” in the Diez and Topkapı Albums, c. 1350–1450. p. 542-544.
  97. ↑ Neci̇poğlu, Gülru (2017). Persianate Images between Europe and China: The “Frankish Manner” in the Diez and Topkapı Albums, c. 1350–1450. p. 549-550.
  98. ↑ Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. The new Islamic dynasties: a chronological and genealogical manual. New Edinburgh Islamic Surveys Series; ISBN 978-0-7486-2137-8
  99. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Muzaffar Husain Syed; Syed Saud Akhtar; B. D. Usmani, eds. (2011-09-14). A Concise History of Islam. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. pp. 196–197. ISBN 978-93-82573-47-0.
  100. ↑ Mernissi, Fatima (2003). The forgotten queens of Islam. Karachi: Oxford University Press. pp. 105–106. ISBN 0-19-579868-6. OCLC 53139275.

Sources

Further reading

Category:1432 disestablishments in Asia Category:States and territories established in 1335 Category:Jalayirids#%20 Category:Mongol states Category:1335 establishments in Asia Category:1330s in the Middle East Category:States and territories disestablished in 1432