Makassarese language

Makasarese
Makasar, Makassar, Macassar, Macassan
Basa MangkasaraʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text
ᨅᨔ ᨆᨀᨔᨑCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text
𑻤𑻰𑻥𑻠𑻰𑻭Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text
بَاسَ مَڠْكَاسَرَءْ‎Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text
MangkasaraʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text written in Makasar script (up) and Lontara script (down)
Pronunciation[ɓasa mãŋˈkʰasaraʔ]Category:Pages with Makasar IPA
Native toIndonesia
RegionSouth Sulawesi (Sulawesi)
EthnicityMakassarese
Native speakers
(2.1 million cited 2000 census)Category:Language articles with old Ethnologue 18 speaker data[1]
Dialects
  • Gowa
  • Turatea
  • Maros-Pangkep
Official status
Regulated byBadan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa
Language codes
ISO 639-2mak
ISO 639-3mak
Glottologmaka1311
  Makassarese language
  Other Makassaric languages
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.
Category:Languages with ISO 639-2 code

Makassarese (/məˌkæsəˈriːz/ mə-KASS-ər-EEZ; Basa MangkasaraʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text, Lontara script: ᨅᨔ ᨆᨀᨔᨑ, Makasar script: 𑻤𑻰𑻥𑻠𑻰𑻭, Serang script: بَاسَ مَڠْكَاسَرَءْ, pronounced [ɓasa mãŋˈkʰasaraʔ]Category:Pages with Makasar IPA), sometimes called Makasar, Makassar, Macassar, or Macassan (Australian English) is a language of the Makassarese people, spoken in South Sulawesi province of Indonesia. It is a member of the South Sulawesi group of the Austronesian language family, and thus closely related to, among others, Buginese, also known as Bugis. The areas where Makassarese is spoken include the Gowa, Sinjai, Maros, Takalar, Jeneponto, Bantaeng, Pangkajene and Islands, Bulukumba, and Selayar Islands Regencies, and Makassar. Within the Austronesian language family, Makassarese is part of the South Sulawesi language group, although its vocabulary is considered divergent compared to its closest relatives. In 2000, Makassarese had approximately 2.1 million native speakers.

Classification

Makassarese is an Austronesian language from the South Sulawesi branch of the Malayo-Polynesian subfamily,[2] specifically the Makassaric group, which also includes both Highland and Coastal Konjo languages and the Selayar language.[3] The Konjo and Selayar language varieties are sometimes considered dialects of Makassarese. As part of the South Sulawesi language family, Makassarese is also closely related to the Bugis, Mandar, and Toraja-Saʼdan languages.[4]

In terms of vocabulary, Makassarese is considered the most distinct among the South Sulawesi languages. The average percentage of vocabulary similarity between Makassarese and other South Sulawesi languages is only 43%.[3] Specifically, the Gowa or Lakiung dialect is the most divergent; the vocabulary similarity of this dialect with other South Sulawesi languages is about 5–10 percentage points lower compared to the vocabulary similarity of Konjo and Selayar with other South Sulawesi languages.[4] However, etymostatistical analysis and functor statistics conducted by linguist Ülo Sirk shows a higher vocabulary similarity percentage (≥ 60%) between Makassarese and other South Sulawesi languages.[5] These quantitative findings support qualitative analyses that place Makassarese as part of the South Sulawesi language family.

Dialect

A diagram representing the lexical similarity between various languages/dialects within the Makassar/Makassarik subgroup, based on Grimes & Grimes (1987, data from Kaseng 1978) and Jukes (2006).

The language varieties within the Makassaric group form a dialect continuum. A language survey in South Sulawesi conducted by linguists and anthropologists Charles and Barbara Grimes separated the Konjo and Selayar languages from Makassarese. Meanwhile, a subsequent survey by linguists Timothy Friberg and Thomas Laskowske divided the Konjo language into three varieties: Coastal Konjo, Highland Konjo, and Bentong/Dentong.[6] However, in a book on Makassarese grammar published by the Center for Language Development and Cultivation, local linguist Abdul Kadir Manyambeang and his team include the Konjo and Selayar varieties as dialects of Makassarese.[7]

Excluding the Konjo and Selayar varieties, Makassarese can be divided into at least three dialects: the Gowa or Lakiung dialect, the Jeneponto or Turatea dialect, and the Bantaeng dialect.[8][7][9] The main differences among these varieties within the Makassar group lie in vocabulary; their grammatical structures are generally quite similar.[7][9] Speakers of the Gowa dialect tend to switch to Indonesian when communicating with speakers of the Bantaeng dialect or with speakers of the Konjo and Selayar languages, and vice versa. The Gowa dialect is generally considered the prestige variety of Makassarese. As the dialect spoken in the central region, the Gowa dialect is also commonly used by speakers of other varieties within the Makassaric group.[10]

Distribution

According to a demographic study based on the 2010 census data, about 1.87 million Indonesians over the age of five speak Makassarese as their mother tongue. Makassarese ranks 16th of top 20 local languages with the most speakers in Indonesia. Makassarese is also the second most-spoken language in Sulawesi after Bugis, which has over 3.5 million speakers.[11][12]

The Makassarese language is primarily spoken by the Makassar people,[13] although a small percentage (1.89%) of the Bugis people also use it as their mother tongue.[14] Makassarese speakers are concentrated in the southwestern peninsula of South Sulawesi, particularly in the fertile coastal areas around Makassar, Gowa Regency, and Takalar Regency. The language is also spoken by some residents of Maros Regency and Pangkajene and Islands Regency to the north, alongside Bugis. Residents of Jeneponto and Bantaeng Regencies generally identify themselves as part of the Makassarese-speaking community, although the varieties they speak (the Jeneponto or Turatea dialect and the Bantaeng dialect) differ significantly from the dialects used in Gowa and Takalar. The closely related Konjo language is spoken in the mountainous areas of Gowa and along the coast of Bulukumba Regency, while the Selayar language is spoken on Selayar Island, to the south of the peninsula.

Due to Makassarese contact with Aboriginal peoples in Northern Australia, a pidgin of Makassarese was used as lingua franca across the region between different Aboriginal groups, though its use declined starting in the early 20th century due to Australian restrictions against Makassarese fishermen in the region and was supplanted by English as a lingua franca.[15]

Current status

Makassarese is one of the relatively well-developed regional languages in Indonesia.[12] It is still widely used in rural areas and parts of Makassar city. Makassarese is also considered important as a marker of ethnic identity. However, in urban communities, code-switching or code-mixing between Makassar and Indonesian is commonly used. Some urban Makassar residents, especially those from the middle class or with multiethnic backgrounds, also use Indonesian as the primary language in their households.[16] Ethnologue classifies Makassar as a 6b (Threatened) language on the EGIDS scale, indicating that although the language is still commonly used in daily conversations, the natural intergenerational transmission or teaching of the language is beginning to be disrupted.

Phonology

Linguist Anthony Jukes described Makassarese phonology as follows:[17]

Vowels

Makassarese has five vowels: /a/Category:Pages with plain IPA, /e/Category:Pages with plain IPA, /i/Category:Pages with plain IPA, /o/Category:Pages with plain IPA, /u/Category:Pages with plain IPA.[18] The mid vowels are lowered to [ɛ]Category:Pages with plain IPA and [ɔ]Category:Pages with plain IPA in absolute final position and in the vowel sequences /ea/Category:Pages with plain IPA and /oa/Category:Pages with plain IPA.

Makassarese vowels[18]
Front Central Back
Close i u
Mid e o
Open a

The vowel phoneme /e/Category:Pages with plain IPA tends to be realized as the open-mid vowel [ɛ]Category:Pages with plain IPA when it is at the end of a word or before a syllable containing the sound [ɛ]Category:Pages with plain IPA. Compare, for instance, the pronunciation of /e/Category:Pages with plain IPA in the word leʼbaʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text [ˈleʔ.baʔ]Category:Pages with plain IPA 'already' with mangeCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text [ˈma.ŋɛ]Category:Pages with plain IPA 'go to'.[18] The phoneme /o/Category:Pages with plain IPA also has an open-mid allophone [ɔ] when it is at the end of a word or precedes a syllable containing the sound [ɔ], as seen in the word lompoCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text [ˈlɔ̃m.pɔ]Category:Pages with plain IPA 'big' (compare with órasaʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text [ˈo.ra.saʔ]Category:Pages with plain IPA 'heavy').[19] Regardless of their position within a word, some speakers tend to pronounce these two vowels with a higher (closer) tongue position, making their pronunciation approach that of the phonemes /i/Category:Pages with plain IPA and /u/Category:Pages with plain IPA.[20]

Vowels can be pronounced nasally when they are around nasal consonants within the same syllable. There are two levels of nasalization intensity for vowels: strong nasalization and weak nasalization. Weak nasalization can be found on vowels before nasal consonants that are not at the end of a word. Strong nasalization can be found on vowels before final nasal consonants or generally after nasal consonants. Nasalization can spread to vowels in syllables after nasal vowels if there are no consonants blocking it. However, the intensity of nasalization in vowels like this is not as strong as in the vowels before them, as in the pronunciation of the word niaʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text [ni͌.ãʔ]Category:Pages with plain IPA 'there is'.[21]

Consonants

There are 17 consonants in Makassarese, as outlined in the following table.

Makassarese consonants
Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m n ɲ ⟨ny⟩[a] ŋ ⟨ng⟩
Plosive voiceless p t c k ʔ ⟨ʼ⟩[b]
voiced b d ɟ ⟨j⟩ ɡ
Fricative s h[c]
Semivowel j ⟨y⟩ w
Lateral l
Trill r
  1. ↑ also written as ⟨n⟩ before ⟨c⟩ and ⟨j⟩
  2. ↑ The glottal stop only occurs in syllable-final position. It is written as ⟨k⟩ in the orthography promoted as the standard by the government and based on the practice in Indonesian, as an apostrophe ⟨ʼ⟩ in other orthographic standards, sometimes as ⟨q⟩ in academic writing, or not written at all in informal writing.
  3. ↑ only occurs in loanwords

Makassarese consonants except the glottal stop and voiced plosives can be geminated. Some instances of these might result from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian schwa phoneme *əCategory:Pages with plain IPA (now merged into aCategory:Pages with plain IPA), which geminated the following consonant (*bəli > *bəlli > balliCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'to buy, price' (compare Indonesian beliCategory:Articles containing Indonesian-language text), contrasting with baliCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'to oppose').[22]

The phoneme /t/Category:Pages with plain IPA is the only consonant with a dental pronunciation, unlike the phonemes /n d s l r/Category:Pages with plain IPA, which are alveolar consonants. The voiceless plosive phonemes /p t k/Category:Pages with plain IPA are generally pronounced with slight aspiration (a flow of air), as in the words katteCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text [ˈkat̪.t̪ʰɛ]Category:Pages with plain IPA 'we', lampaCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text [ˈlam.pʰa]Category:Pages with plain IPA 'go', and kanaCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text [ˈkʰa.nã]Category:Pages with plain IPA 'say'. The phonemes /b/Category:Pages with plain IPA and /d/Category:Pages with plain IPA have implosive allophones [ɓ]Category:Pages with plain IPA and [ɗ]Category:Pages with plain IPA, especially in word-initial positions, such as in baluCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text [ˈɓa.lu]Category:Pages with plain IPA 'widow', and after the sound [ʔ]Category:Pages with plain IPA, as in aʼdolengCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text [aʔ.ˈɗo.lẽŋ]Category:Pages with plain IPA 'to let hang'. These two consonants, especially /b/Category:Pages with plain IPA in word-initial positions, can also be realized as voiceless consonants without aspiration. The palatal phoneme /c/Category:Pages with plain IPA can be realized as an affricate (a stop sound with a release of fricative) [cç]Category:Pages with plain IPA or even [tʃ]Category:Pages with plain IPA. The phoneme /ɟ/Category:Pages with plain IPA can also be pronounced as an affricate [ɟʝ]Category:Pages with plain IPA. Jukes analyzes both of these consonants as stop consonants because they have palatal nasal counterparts /ɲ/Category:Pages with plain IPA, just as other oral stop consonants have their own nasal counterparts.

Phonotactics

The basic structure of syllables in Makassarese is (C1)V(C2). The position of C1 can be filled by almost any consonant, while the position of C2 has some limitations.[23] In syllables located at the end of a morpheme, C2 can be filled by a stop (T) or a nasal (N), the pronunciation of which is determined by assimilation rules. The sound T assimilates with (is pronounced the same as) voiceless consonants except [h]Category:Pages with plain IPA, and is realized as [ʔ]Category:Pages with plain IPA in other contexts. The sound N is realized as a homorganic nasal (pronounced at the same articulation place) before a stop or nasal consonant, assimilates with the consonant's /l/Category:Pages with plain IPA and /s/Category:Pages with plain IPA, and is realized as [ŋ]Category:Pages with plain IPA in other contexts. On the other hand, in syllables within root forms, Makassarese contrasts an additional sound in the C2 position besides K and N, which is /r/Category:Pages with plain IPA. This analysis is based on the fact that Makassarese distinguishes between the sequences [nr]Category:Pages with plain IPA, [ʔr]Category:Pages with plain IPA, and [rr]Category:Pages with plain IPA across syllables. However, [rr]Category:Pages with plain IPA can also be considered as the realization of a geminate segment rather than a sequence across syllables.[24]

CV patterns[25][a]
V o 'oh' (interjection)
CV ri PREP (particle)
VC uʼ 'hair'
CVC piʼ 'birdlime'
VV io 'yes'
VVC aeng 'father'
CVV tau 'person'
CVVC taung 'year'
VCVC anaʼ 'child'
CVCV sala 'wrong'
CVCVC sabaʼ 'reason'
CVCCVC leʼbaʼ 'already'
CVCVCV binánga 'river'
CVCVCVC pásaraʼ 'market'
CVCVCCV kalúppa 'forget'
CVCCVCVC kaʼlúrung 'palm wood'
CVCVCVCVC balakeboʼ 'herring'
  CVCVCVCCVC   kalumanynyang   'rich'  
  1. ↑ The first two are shaded because they are not roots.[25]

The sounds /s l r/Category:Pages with plain IPA can be categorized as non-nasal continuous (sounds produced without fully obstructing the flow of air through the mouth) consonants, and none of them can occupy the final position of a syllable except as part of a geminate consonant sequence.[26] Basic words that actually end with these consonants will be appended with an epenthetic vowel identical to the vowel in the preceding syllable, and closed with a glottal stop [ʔ]Category:Pages with plain IPA,[27] as in the words ótereʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text /oter/Category:Pages with plain IPA 'rope', bótoloʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text /botol/Category:Pages with plain IPA 'bottle', and rántasaʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text /rantas/Category:Pages with plain IPA 'mess, untidy'.[28] This additional element is also referred to as the "echo-VC" (paragogic vowel-consonant sequence), and it can affect the position of stress within a word.[29][30]

Generally, base words in Makassarese consist of two or three syllables. However, longer words can be formed due to the agglutinative nature of Makassarese and the highly productive reduplication process.[31] According to Jukes, words with six or seven syllables are commonly found in Makassarese, while base words with just one syllable (that are not borrowed from other languages) are very rare, although there are some interjections and particles consisting of only one syllable.[32]

All consonants except for /ʔ/Category:Pages with plain IPA can appear in initial position. In final position, only /ŋ/Category:Pages with plain IPA and /ʔ/Category:Pages with plain IPA are found.

Consonant clusters only occur medially and (with one exception) can be analyzed as clusters of /ŋ/Category:Pages with plain IPA or /ʔ/Category:Pages with plain IPA + consonant. These clusters also arise through sandhi across morpheme boundaries.

nasal/lateral voiceless obstruents voiced stops + r
m n ɲ ŋ l p t c k s b d ɟ ɡ r
/ŋ/ mmCategory:Pages with plain IPA nnCategory:Pages with plain IPA ɲɲCategory:Pages with plain IPA ŋŋCategory:Pages with plain IPA llCategory:Pages with plain IPA mpCategory:Pages with plain IPA ntCategory:Pages with plain IPA ɲcCategory:Pages with plain IPA ŋkCategory:Pages with plain IPA nsCategory:Pages with plain IPA mbCategory:Pages with plain IPA ndCategory:Pages with plain IPA ɲɟCategory:Pages with plain IPA ŋɡCategory:Pages with plain IPA nrCategory:Pages with plain IPA
/ʔ/ ʔmCategory:Pages with plain IPA ʔnCategory:Pages with plain IPA ʔɲCategory:Pages with plain IPA ʔŋCategory:Pages with plain IPA ʔlCategory:Pages with plain IPA ppCategory:Pages with plain IPA ttCategory:Pages with plain IPA ccCategory:Pages with plain IPA kkCategory:Pages with plain IPA ssCategory:Pages with plain IPA ʔbCategory:Pages with plain IPA ʔdCategory:Pages with plain IPA ʔɟCategory:Pages with plain IPA ʔɡCategory:Pages with plain IPA ʔrCategory:Pages with plain IPA

The geminate cluster /rr/Category:Pages with plain IPA is only found in root-internal position and cannot be accounted for by the above rules.

Sequences of like vowels are contracted to a single vowel; e.g., sassaCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'to wash' + -angCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'nominalizing suffix' > sassángCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'laundry', caʼdiCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'small' + -iCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'third person' > caʼdiCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'it is small'.

Stress

The stress is generally placed on the penultimate (second-last) syllable of a base word. In reduplicated words, secondary stress will be placed on the first element, as in the word ammèkang-mékangCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text /amˌmekaŋˈmekaŋ/Category:Pages with plain IPA 'to fish (casually)'.[31][33] Suffixes are generally counted as part of the phonological unit receiving stress, while enclitics are not counted (extrametrical). For example, the word gássingCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'strong', if the benefactive suffix -angCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text is added, becomes gassíngangCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'stronger than' with stress on the penultimate syllable, but if given the first-person marker enclitic =aʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text, it becomes gássingaʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'I am strong', with stress on the antepenultimate syllable (third-last).[34]

Other morphemes counted as part of the stress-bearing unit include the affixal clitic,[a] marking possession, as in the word tedóng=kuCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text (buffalo=1.POSS) 'my buffalo'.[36] Particularly for the definite marker ≡aCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text, this morpheme is counted as part of the stress-bearing unit only if the base word it attaches to ends in a vowel, as in the word batúaCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'the stone'—compare with the stress pattern in kóngkongaCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'the dog', where the base word ends in a consonant.[37][38] A word can have stress on the preantepenultimate (fourth-last) syllable if a two-syllable enclitic combination such as =makoCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text (PFV =maCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text, 2 =koCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text) is appended; e.g., náiʼmakoCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'go up!'[36] The stress position can also be influenced by the process of vocalic degemination, where identical vowels across morphemes merge into one. For example, the word jappaCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'walk', when the suffix -ang is added, becomes jappángCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'to walk with', with stress on the ultimate (last) syllable.[39]

The stress on base words with echo-VC always falls on the antepenultimate syllable; for example, lápisiʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'layer', bótoloʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'bottle', pásaraʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'market', and MangkásaraʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'Makassar', because syllables with VK-geminate are extrametrical.[29][30][28] However, the addition of suffixes -angCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text and -iCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text will remove this epenthetic syllable and move the stress to the penultimate position, as in the word lapísiCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'to layer'. Adding the possessive clitic suffix also shifts the stress to the penultimate position but does not remove this epenthetic syllable, as in the word botolóʼnaCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'its bottle'. Meanwhile, the addition of the definite marker and enclitics neither remove nor alter the stress position of this syllable, as in the words pásarakaCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'that market' and appásarakaʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'I'm going to the market'.[26][40]

Grammar

Pronouns

Personal pronouns in the Makassar language have three forms, namely:

  • free forms;
  • proclitics that cross-reference S and P arguments ('absolutive');
  • and enclitics that cross-reference A arguments ('ergative').

The following table shows these three forms of pronouns along with possessive markers for each series.

Personal pronouns[41]
Free pronouns
(PRO)		 Proclitic
(ERG)		 Enclitic
(ABS)		 Possessive marker
(POSS)
1SG (i)nakkeCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text ku=Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text =aʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text =kuCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text
1PL.INCL/2HON (i)katteCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text ki=Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text =kiʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text =taCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text
1PL.EXCL †(i)kambeCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text N/a *=kangCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text †=mangCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text
2FAM (i)kauCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text nu=Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text =koCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text =nuCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text
3 iaCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text na=Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text =iCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text =naCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text

The first person plural inclusive pronouns are also used to refer to the second person plural and serve as a form of respect for the second person singular. The first person plural pronoun series ku=Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text is commonly used to refer to the first person plural in modern Makassar; pronouns kambeCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text and possessive marker =mangCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text are considered archaic, while the enclitic =kangCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text can only appear in combination with clitic markers of modality and aspect, such as =pakangCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text (IPFV =paCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text, 1PL.EXCL =kangCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text).[42] The plural meaning can be expressed more clearly by adding the word ngasengCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'all' after the free form, as in ia–ngasengCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'they all' and ikau–ngasengCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'you all',[43] or before the enclitic, as in ngaseng=iCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'they all'. However, ngasengCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text cannot be paired with proclitics.

Proclitic and enclitic forms are the most common pronominal forms used to refer to the person or object being addressed (see the #Basic Clauses section for examples of their use). Free forms are less frequently used; their use is generally limited to presentative clauses (clauses that state or introduce something, see example 1), for emphasis (2), in prepositional phrases functioning as arguments or adjuncts (3), and as predicates (4).[41]

(1)
Iaminjo allo makaruayya

ia

3PRO

=mo

=PFV

=i

=3

(a)njo

that

allo

day

maka-

ORD-

rua

two

≡a

≡DEF

ia =mo =i (a)njo allo maka- rua ≡a

3PRO =PFV =3 that day ORD- two ≡DEF

'that was the second day.'[42]

(2)
… lompo-lompoi anaʼna, na inakke, tenapa kutianang

lompo-

RDP-

lompo

big

=i

=3

anaʼ

child

≡na

≡3.POSS

na

and

i-

PERS-

nakke

1PRO

tena

NEG

=pa

=IPF

ku=

1=

tianang

pregnant

lompo- lompo =i anaʼ ≡na na i- nakke tena =pa ku= tianang

RDP- big =3 child ≡3.POSS and PERS- 1PRO NEG =IPF 1= pregnant

'… his child is growing, and me, Iʼm not yet pregnant.'[44]

(3)
Amminawangaʼ ri katte

aN(N)-

BV-

pinawang

follow

=a'

=1

ri

PREP

katte

2FAMPRO

aN(N)- pinawang =a' ri katte

BV- follow =1 PREP 2FAMPRO

'Iʼm following you.'[44]

(4)
Inakkeji

i-

PERS-

nakke

1PRO

=ja

=LIM

=i

=3

i- nakke =ja =i

PERS- 1PRO =LIM =3

'itʼs only me.'[44]

Nouns and noun phrases

Characteristics and types of nouns

Nouns in Makassarese are a class of words that can function as arguments for a predicate, allowing them to be cross-referenced by pronominal clitics.[45] Nouns can also serve as the head of a noun phrase (including relative clauses). In possessive constructions, nouns can act as either the possessor or the possessed; an affixal clitic will be attached to the possessed noun phrase. The indefiniteness of a noun can be expressed by the affixal clitic ≡aCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text. Uninflected nouns can also function as predicates in a sentence. All of these main points are illustrated in the following example:[46]

(5)
Anaʼnai karaenga

anaʼ

child

≡na

≡3.POSS

=i

=3

karaeng

king

≡a

≡DEF

anaʼ ≡na =i karaeng ≡a

child ≡3.POSS =3 king ≡DEF

he is the son of the king.'[47]

In addition, nouns can also be specified by demonstratives, modified by adjectives, quantified by numerals, become complements in prepositional phrases, and become verbs meaning 'wear/use [the noun in question]' when affixed with the prefix aK-Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text.[46]

Nouns that are usually affixed with the definite clitic ≡aCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text and possessive markers are common nouns.[48] On the other hand, proper nouns such as place names, personal names, and titles (excluding kinship terms) are usually not affixed with definiteness and possessive markers but can be paired with the personal prefix i-Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text like pronouns.[49]

Some common nouns are generic nouns that often become the core of a compound word, such as the words jeʼneʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'water', taiCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'excrement', and anaʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'child'.[50] Examples of compound words derived from these generic nouns are jeʼneʼ inungCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'drinking water', tai baniCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'wax, beeswax' (literal meaning: 'bee excrement'), and anaʼ baineCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'daughter'.[49] Kinship terms that are commonly used as greetings are also classified as common nouns, such as the words manggeCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'father', anrongCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'mother', and sariʼbattangCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'sibling'.[51] Another example is the word daengCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text which is used as a polite greeting in general, or by a wife to her husband.

The other main noun group is temporal nouns, which usually appear after prepositions in adjunct constructions to express time.[50] Examples of temporal nouns are clock times (such as tetteʼ limaCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text '5.00 [five o'clock]'), estimated times based on divisions of the day (such as bariʼbasaʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'morning'), days of the week, as well as dates, months, and seasons.[52]

Derived noun

Derived nouns in Makassarese are formed through several productive morphological processes, such as reduplication and affixation with pa-Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text, ka-Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text, and -angCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text, either individually or in combination.[53] The following table illustrates some common noun formation processes in Makassarese:[54][55]

Formation of derived nouns
Process Productive

meanings

 Samples Note
reduplication diminution or imitation tauCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'people' → tau-tauCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'statue, doll' [56][57]
suffix pa-Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text pa-Category:Articles containing Makasar-language textNOMINAL/VERBAL ROOT actor, creator,

or user

 jarangCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'horse' → pajarangCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'rider';

botoroʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'gamble' → pabotoroʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'gambler'

 [58][59]
pa-Category:Articles containing Makasar-language textVERB BASE[b] instrument akkutaʼnangCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'ask' → pakkutaʼnangCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'question';

anjoʼjoʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'point' → panjoʼjoʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'index finger, pointer'

 [62][63]
pa-Category:Articles containing Makasar-language textDERIVED VERBAL BASES[c] instrument appakagassingCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'fortifiying' → pappakagassingCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'tonic, fortifying medicine or drink' [62]
pa>Category:Articles containing Makasar-language textVERB BASE<angCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text place or time aʼjeʼneʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'bathe' → paʼjeʼnekangCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'bathing place, bathtime';

angnganreCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'eat' → pangnganreangCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'plate'

 [64]
paK>ADJECTIVE<angCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text[d] someone who is

easily ADJ, inclined to be ADJ

 garringCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'sick' → paʼgarringangCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'sickly person' [65]
confix ka>Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text...<angCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text ka>Category:Articles containing Makasar-language textADJECTIVE<angCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text ADJ-ness kodiCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'bad' → kakodiangCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'badness' [66][67]
ka>Category:Articles containing Makasar-language textREDUPLICATED ADJECTIVAL<angCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text peak of ADJ gassingCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'strong' → kagassing-gassingangCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'greatest strength'[e] [69]
ka>Category:Articles containing Makasar-language textBASIC VERB<angCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text state or process battuCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'come' → kabattuangCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'arrival' [67][70]
suffix -angCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text instrument buleʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'carry on shoulders' → bulekangCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'sedan chair' [71][72]

There are some exceptions to the general patterns described above. For example, reduplication of the word oloʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'worm' to oloʼ-oloʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text results in a broadening of meaning to 'animal'.[73] The affixation of pa-Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text to a verb base does not always indicate an instrument or tool, for example paʼmaiʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'breath, character, heart' (as in the phrase lompo paʼmaiʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'big-hearted') which is derived from the word aʼmaiʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'to breathe'.[74][75] The affixation of pa>...<angCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text to the verb base ammanaʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text 'to give birth' results in the word pammanakangCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text meaning 'family', although it is possible that this word was originally a metaphor ('place to have children').[76]

Noun phrase

The components of noun phrases in the Makassarese can be categorized into three groups, namely 1) head, 2) specifier, and 3) modifier.[77]

Modifying elements always follow the head noun-they may be of various types:[78]

In Makassarese, relative clauses are placed directly after the head noun without any special marker (unlike Indonesian, which requires a word like 'yangCategory:Articles containing Indonesian-language text' before the relative clause). The verb within the relative clause is marked with the definite marker ≡aCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text.[82]

(8)
Tau battua ri Japáng

tau

person

battu

come

≡a

≡DEF

ri

PREP

Japáng

Japan

tau battu ≡a ri Japáng

person come ≡DEF PREP Japan

'the person who came from Japan.'[82]

Verb

Basic clause

Intransitive clauses

In Makassarese intransitive clauses, the 'absolutive' enclitic (=ABS) is used to cross-reference the sole argument in the clause (S) if that argument is definite or salient according to the conversational context. This enclitic tends to be attached to the first constituent in a clause. The aK-Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text prefix is commonly used to form intransitive verbs, although some verbs like tinro 'sleep' do not require this prefix.[83]

(11)
Aʼjappai Balandayya

aK-

MW-

jappa

walk

=i

=3

Balanda

Dutch

≡a

≡DEF

aK- jappa =i Balanda ≡a

MW- walk =3 Dutch ≡DEF

'The Dutchman is walking.'[83]

(12)
Tinroi i Ali

tinro

sleep

=i

=3

i

PERS

Ali

Ali

tinro =i i Ali

sleep =3 PERS Ali

'Ali is sleeping.'[84]

Many other types of phrases may head intransitive clauses, for example nominals (13) and pronoun (example (4) above), adjectives (14), or a prepositional phrase (15):

(13)
Jarangaʼ

jarang

horse

=aʼ

=1

jarang =aʼ

horse =1

'I am a horse.'[84]

(14)
Bambangi alloa

bambang

hot

=i

=3

allo

day

≡a

≡DEF

bambang =i allo ≡a

hot =3 day ≡DEF

'This day is hot.'[84]

(15)
Ri ballaʼnai

ri

PREP

ballaʼ

house

≡na

≡3.POSS

=i

=3

ri ballaʼ ≡na =i

PREP house ≡3.POSS =3

'Heʼs at home.'[84]

Transitive clauses

Verbs in transitive clauses are not affixed, but instead are marked with a pronominal proclitic indicating the A or actor and a pronominal enclitic indicating the P or undergoer.[84]

(16)
Nakokkokaʼ miongku

na=

3=

kokkoʼ

bite

=aʼ

=1

miong

cat

≡ku

≡1.POSS

na= kokkoʼ =aʼ miong ≡ku

3= bite =1 cat ≡1.POSS

'My cat bit me.'[84]

Tense, Aspect, and Modality

In addition to the personal pronoun clitics used to cross-reference arguments within a sentence, the Makassar language also possesses a series of clitics employed to mark grammatical meanings such as tense, aspect, modality, and polarity (affirmation and negation). The clitics belonging to this group are the proclitics la=Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text FUT and ta=Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text NEG, and the enclitics =moCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text PFV, =paCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text IPF, =jaCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text LIM, and =kaCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text OR.[85] These types of clitics are generally placed before the pronominal clitics (if any), whether in initial or final position on the base word they attach to. The vowel sound in the aspect/modality enclitics is dropped if followed by the pronominal enclitics =aʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text and =iCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text, with the exception of the enclitic =kaCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text, which becomes =kaiCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text when paired with =iCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text.[86] The following table shows the combinations between the aspect/modality and pronominal enclitics:[87]

Tense, Aspect, Modality and pronominal enclitics[87]
=aʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text
1		 =kiʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text
1PL.INCL/2HON		 =kangCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text
1PL.EXCL		 =koCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text
2FAM		 =iCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text
3
=moCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text PFV =maʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text =makiʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text =makangCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text =makoCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text =miCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text
=paCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text IPF =paʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text =pakiʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text =pakangCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text =pakoCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text =piCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text
=jaCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text LIM =jaʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text =jakiʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text =jakangCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text =jakoCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text =jiCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text
=kaCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text OR =kaʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text =kakiʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text =kakangCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text =kakoCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text =kaiCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text

The proclitic ta=Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text, although the most basic negation morpheme in the Makassarese, is not the most commonly used negator. Negation constructions generally use a combination of words that have undergone grammaticalization, such as taenaCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text ('no,' 'not').

Meanwhile, the proclitic la=Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text can be used to express the future tense or the meaning of 'will,' as in the following example:

Lamangeaʼ ri pasaraka ammuko

la=

FUT=

mange

go

=aʼ

=1

ri

PREP

pasaraʼ

market

≡a

≡DEF

ammuko

tomorrow

la= mange =aʼ ri pasaraʼ ≡a ammuko

FUT= go =1 PREP market ≡DEF tomorrow

'I’ll go to the market tomorrow.'[88]

The proclitic la=Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text can also be found in questions, such as the expression lakerekomae?Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text or lakekomae?Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text ('Where are you going?'). This is a common greeting in Makassarese.[88]

The use of the perfective clitic =moCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text together with la=Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text indicates that the event referred to by both clitics will happen 'immediately'.[88]

Lakusaremako paʼarengang

la=

FUT=

ku=

1=

sare

give

=mo

=PFV

=ko

=2FAM

pa>

NR>

aK-

MV-

areng

name

<ang

<NR

la= ku= sare =mo =ko pa> aK- areng <ang

FUT= 1= give =PFV =2FAM NR> MV- name <NR

'I will give you a naming (right now).'[88]

The enclitic =moCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text itself fundamentally serves as a marker for the perfective aspect or the meaning of 'already/has/have done'.[89]

Pirambulammi battanta? Sibulammaʼ tacciniʼ ceraʼ

piraN-

how.many

bulang

month

=mo

=PFV

=i

=3

battang

belly

≡ta

≡2HON.POSS

si-

one-

bulang

month

=mo

=PFV

=aʼ

=1

ta=

NEG=

aK-

MV-

ciniʼ

see

ceraʼ

blood

piraN- bulang =mo =i battang ≡ta si- bulang =mo =aʼ ta= aK- ciniʼ ceraʼ

how.many month =PFV =3 belly ≡2HON.POSS one- month =PFV =1 NEG= MV- see blood

'How many months have you been pregnant? (lit: how many months your belly?) It’s already a month since I saw any blood.'[89]

This enclitic also carries deontic meaning (indicating necessity or certainty) and can be used in imperative constructions, as in example (9). In interrogative constructions, the addition of the enclitic =moCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text signals that the questioner desires a definite answer.[90]

Ammempomakiʼ

amm-

MV-

empo

sit

=mo

=PFV

=kiʼ

=2HON

amm- empo =mo =kiʼ

MV- sit =PFV =2HON

'Please sit yourself down.'[89]

Keremi mae pammantangannu?

kere

where

=mo

=PFV

=i

=3

mae

mae

pa>

NR>

amm-

MV-

antang

live

<ang

<NR

≡nu

≡2FAM.POSS

kere =mo =i mae pa> amm- antang <ang ≡nu

{where} =PFV =3 mae NR> MV- live <NR ≡2FAM.POSS

'Where exactly is your home?'[91]

The opposite of =moCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text is the imperfective enclitic =paCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text, which conveys the meaning of 'not yet finished' or 'still'.[91]

Ingka seʼrepi kuboya

ingka

but

seʼre

one

=pa

=IPFV

=i

=3

ku=

1=

boya

search

ingka seʼre =pa =i ku= boya

but one =IPFV =3 1= search

'But there's still one thing Iseek.'[91]

The meaning of 'only, just' (in the sense of 'no more than' or 'nothing other than') is conveyed by the limitative enclitic =jaCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text. Example usage:[92]

Mannantu lompo, lompo bannanji

manna

although

antu

that

lompo

big

lompo

big

bannang

thread

=ja

=LIM

=i

=3

manna antu lompo lompo bannang =ja =i

although that big big thread =LIM =3

'Even if that's thick, it's only a thick thread (ie. it may be big, but it's only big for a small thing).'[92]

The enclitic =kaCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text has two functions. In question sentences, this enclitic is used to request certainty or clarify the opponent's statement, similar to a questiontag in English.[93]

Lanaungkako?

la=

FUT=

naung

descend

=ka

=OR

=ko

=2FAM

la= naung =ka =ko

FUT= descend =OR =2FAM

'Will you really go down?'[94]

Another function of the enclitic =kaCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text is to mark choice or possibility, for example tedong=ka jarang=kaCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text (buffalo=OR horse=OR) '[the choice is] between a buffalo or a horse'. A longer example of its usage can be seen in the following quote from the preface of the Gowa Chronicles:[94]

Ka punna taniassenga ruai kodina kisaʼringkai kalenta karaeng–dudu na kanaka tau ipantaraka tau bawang–dudu

ka

BCS

punna

if

ta=

NEG=

ni-

PASS-

asseng

know

≡a

≡DEF

rua

two

=i

=3

kodi

bad

≡na

≡3.POSS

ki=

HON=

saʼring

feel

=ka

=OR

=i

=3

kale

self

≡nta

≡2HON.POSS

karaeng

king

dudu

very

na

and

kana

word

=ka

=OR

tau

person

i

PREP

pantaraʼ

outside

≡a

≡DEF

tau

person

bawang

ordinary

dudu

very

ka punna ta= ni- asseng ≡a rua =i kodi ≡na ki= saʼring =ka =i kale ≡nta karaeng dudu na kana =ka tau i pantaraʼ ≡a tau bawang dudu

BCS if NEG= PASS- know ≡DEF two =3 bad ≡3.POSS HON= feel =OR =3 self ≡2HON.POSS king very and word =OR person PREP outside ≡DEF person ordinary very

'Because if it is not known, there are two dangers: either we will feel ourselves to be kings too, or outsiders will call us common people.'[94]

Writing systems

1. Makasar script; 2. Lontara script; 3. Serang script; 4. Latin script

Although Makassarese is now often written in Latin script, Makassarese has been traditionally written with Lontara script and Makasar script, which once was used also to write important documents in Bugis and Mandar, two related languages from Sulawesi. Further, Makassarese was written in the Serang script, a variant of the Arabic-derived Jawi script. Texts written in the Serang script are relatively rare, and mostly appear in connection with Islam-related topics. Parts of the Makassar Annals, the chronicles of the Gowa and Tallo' kingdoms, were also written using the Serang script.[22]

Latin-based system

The current Latin-based forms:

Majuscule forms (uppercase)
A B C D E G H I J K L M N Ng[i] Ny[i] O P R S T U W Y (ʼ)[ii]
Minuscule forms (lowercase)
a b c d e g h i j k l m n ng[i] ny[i] o p r s t u w y (ʼ)[ii]
IPA
a b c d e ɡ h i ɟ k, ʔ[iii] l m n ŋ ɲ o p r s t u w j ʔ
  1. 1 2 3 4 counted as digraph, not a single letter
  2. 1 2 nonstandard orthography
  3. ↑ glottal stop only appear in final consonant of closed sylable
Comparison of Makassarese orthography
u c ɟ ŋ ɲ -ʔ (stressed vowels)
Matthes (1859) oe t͠j d͠j n͠g n͠j ◌́, ◌̉ ◌̂
Cense (1979) u tj dj ŋ ñ -ʼ ◌̀
Indonesian based (1975) u c j ng ny -k (not written)
Locally preferred u c j ng ny -ʼ

Old Makassar and Lontara script

Sample of a handwritten book, written in Makassarese using the Makasar script, of a diary of the Princes of the Sultanate of Gowa. The passimbang punctuation signs, typical of this script, are drawn and colored in red, as well as a few proper names and some inserts in Arabic.

Makassarese was historically written using Makasar script (also known as "Old Makassarese" or "Makassarese bird script" in English-language scholarly works).[95] In Makassarese the script is known as ukiriʼ jangang-jangangCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text or huruf jangang-jangangCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text ('bird letters'). It was used for official purposes in the kingdoms of Makasar during the 17th century but ceased to be used by the 19th century, being replaced by Lontara script.

In spite of their quite distinctive appearance, both the Makasar and Lontara scripts are derived from the ancient Brāhmī script of India. Like other descendants of the script, each consonant has an inherent vowel "a", which is not marked. Other vowels can be indicated by adding diacritics above, below, or on either side of each consonant.

Base consonant letters
ka ga nga pa ba ma ta da na ca ja nya ya ra la wa sa a ha
Old Makassarese 𑻠 𑻡 𑻢 𑻣 𑻤 𑻥 𑻦 𑻧 𑻨 𑻩 𑻪 𑻫 𑻬 𑻭 𑻮 𑻯 𑻰 𑻱 - (𑻱[i])
Lontara script ᨀ ᨁ ᨂ ᨄ ᨅ ᨆ ᨈ ᨉ ᨊ ᨌ ᨍ ᨎ ᨐ ᨑ ᨒ ᨓ ᨔ ᨕ ᨖ
  1. ↑ Although the letter ha (ᨖ) is not present in the Old Makassar script and is actually a borrowed sound from Arabic and Dutch, phonetically, the [h]Category:Pages with plain IPA sound in loanwords is often left unpronounced. For example, the word haʼjiCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text [ˈhaʔɟi]Category:Pages with plain IPA (Arabic: حَجِّيّCategory:Articles containing Arabic-language text ḥajjiyy) becomes aʼjiCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text [ˈaʔɟi]Category:Pages with plain IPA

Ambiguity

Both scripts do not have a virama or other ways to write syllable codas in a consistent manner, even though codas occur regularly in Makassar. For example, in Makassar is baba ᨅᨅ which can correspond to six possible words: baba, babaʼ, baʼba, baʼbaʼ, bamba, and bambang.[96]

Given that Lontara script is also traditionally written without word breaks, a typical text often has many ambiguous portions which can often only be disambiguated through context. This ambiguity is analogous to the use of Arabic letters without vowel markers; readers whose native language use Arabic characters intuitively understand which vowels are appropriate in a given sentence so that vowel markers are not needed in standard everyday texts.

Even so, sometimes even context is not sufficient. In order to read a text fluently, readers may need substantial prior knowledge of the language and contents of the text in question. As an illustration, Cummings and Jukes provide the following example to illustrate how the Lontara script can produce different meanings depending on how the reader cuts and fills in the ambiguous part:

Lontara script Possible reading
Latin Meaning
ᨕᨅᨙᨈᨕᨗ[97] aʼbétai he won (intransitive)
ambetái he beat... (transitive)
ᨊᨀᨑᨙᨕᨗᨄᨙᨄᨙᨅᨒᨉᨈᨚᨀ[98] nakanrei pepeʼ ballaʼ datoka fire devouring a temple
nakanrei pepe' Balanda tokkaʼ fire devouring a bald Hollander
ᨄᨙᨄᨙ pepe mute
pepeʼ fire
pempeng stuck together
peppeʼ hit

Without knowing the actual event to which the text may be referring, it can be impossible for first time readers to determine the "correct" reading of the above examples. Even the most proficient readers may need to pause and re-interpret what they have read as new context is revealed in later portions of the same text.[96] Due to this ambiguity, some writers such as Noorduyn labelled Lontara as a defective script.[99]

Serang script

After Islam arrived in 1605, and with Malay traders using the Arabic-based Jawi script, Makassarese could also be written using Arabic letters. This was called 'serang' and was better at capturing the spoken language than the original Makassarese scripts because it could show consonants at the ends of syllables. But it wasn't widely used, with only a few surviving manuscripts. One key example is the diary of the Gowa and Tallo' courts, translated from serang into Dutch. However, Arabic script is commonly found in manuscripts to write Islamic names, dates, and religious ideas.[100]

Additional letters compared to Arabic
Sound Isolated form Final form Medial form Initial form Name
/c/Category:Pages with plain IPA چ‎ ـچ‎ ـچـ‎ چـ‎ ca
/ŋ/Category:Pages with plain IPA ڠ‎ ـڠ‎ ـڠـ‎ ڠـ‎ nga
/ɡ/Category:Pages with plain IPA ࢴ‎ ـࢴ‎ ـࢴـ‎ ࢴـ‎ gapu
/ɲ/Category:Pages with plain IPA ڽ‎ ـڽ‎ ـڽـ‎ ڽـ‎ nya

Sample text

Sample text
Old Makassar script 𑻨𑻳𑻰𑻴𑻭𑻶𑻥𑻳𑻷𑻥𑻮𑻱𑻵𑻠𑻲𑻷𑻱𑻢𑻴𑻠𑻳𑻭𑻳𑻠𑻳𑻱𑻭𑻵𑻨𑻷𑻰𑻳𑻬𑻡𑻱𑻷𑻱𑻵𑻣𑻶𑻯𑻨𑻷𑻠𑻥𑻦𑻵𑻬𑻨𑻷𑻰𑻳𑻬𑻡𑻱𑻷𑻮𑻭𑻳𑻠𑻥𑻦𑻵𑻬𑻨𑻷 𑻨𑻲𑻱𑻵𑻭𑻥𑻶𑻷𑻥𑻮𑻱𑻵𑻠𑻲𑻷𑻥𑻢𑻵𑻷𑻭𑻳𑻥𑻮𑻠𑻴𑻮𑻴𑻥𑻱𑻴𑻦𑻳𑻷
Lontara script ᨊᨗᨔᨘᨑᨚᨆᨗ᨞ᨆᨒᨕᨙᨀᨀ᨞ᨕᨂᨘᨀᨗᨑᨗᨀᨗᨕᨑᨙᨊ᨞ᨔᨗᨐᨁᨕ᨞ᨕᨙᨄᨚᨓᨊ᨞ᨀᨆᨈᨙᨐᨊ᨞ᨔᨗᨐᨁᨕ᨞ᨒᨑᨗᨀᨆᨈᨙᨐᨊ᨞ ᨊᨊᨕᨙᨑᨆᨚ᨞ᨆᨒᨕᨙᨀᨀ᨞ᨆᨂᨙ᨞ᨑᨗᨆᨒᨀᨘᨒᨘᨆᨕᨘᨈᨗ᨞
Serang script نِسُوْرُمِ مَلَائِكَكَةْ أَڠُّكِرِيْرِكِ أَرِيِنَّ سِيَࢴَاءً إِمْفُوَانَّ كَمَتِيَانَّ سِيَࢴَاءً لَنْرِ كَمَتِيَانَّ نَنَئِيْرَمَّ مَلَائِكَكَة مَاڠِيْ رِ مَلَكُ الْمَوْتِ‎
Latin Script Nisuromi malaekaka anngukiriki arenna, siagáng empoanna kamateanna, siagáng lanri kamateanna, na naerammo malaekaka mange ri Malakulmauti.
Translation The malāʾikah were ordered to record his name, the circumstances of his death, and the cause of his death, then the malāʾikah took him to Malak al-Mawt.

Some common words and phrases in the Makassarese language, transcribed in the Latin script, are as follows (⟨ʼ⟩ represents the glottal stop).

Writing system examples
Lontara Romanized Indonesian Translation
ᨈᨕᨘCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text tauCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text orangCategory:Articles containing Indonesian-language text people
ᨄᨎᨗᨀᨗCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text paʼnyikiCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text kelelawarCategory:Articles containing Indonesian-language text bat
ᨕᨑᨙCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text arengCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text namaCategory:Articles containing Indonesian-language text name
ᨕᨊCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text anaʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text anakCategory:Articles containing Indonesian-language text child
ᨔᨙᨑᨙ᨞ ᨑᨘᨓ᨞ ᨈᨒᨘ᨞ ᨕᨄ᨞ ᨒᨗᨆ᨞Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text seʼreCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text, ruaCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text, talluCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text, appaʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text, limaCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text satu, dua, tiga, empat, limaCategory:Articles containing Indonesian-language text one, two, three, four, five
ᨅᨕᨗᨊᨙCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text baineCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text perempuanCategory:Articles containing Indonesian-language text, istriCategory:Articles containing Indonesian-language text female, woman, wife
ᨅᨘᨑᨊᨙCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text buraʼneCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text lelakiCategory:Articles containing Indonesian-language text, suamiCategory:Articles containing Indonesian-language text male, man, husband
ᨈᨅᨙCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text tabeʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text permisiCategory:Articles containing Indonesian-language text, maafCategory:Articles containing Indonesian-language text excuse me, sorry
ᨈᨕᨙᨊCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text, ᨈᨙᨊCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text, ᨈᨑᨙCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text taenaCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text, tenaCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text, tanreʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text tiadaCategory:Articles containing Indonesian-language text none, nothing
ᨒᨙᨅCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text leʼbaʼCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text telahCategory:Articles containing Indonesian-language text already
ᨔᨒᨆᨀᨗ ᨅᨈᨘ ᨆᨕᨙCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text salamakkiʼ battu maeCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text selamat datangCategory:Articles containing Indonesian-language text welcome
ᨕᨄ ᨕᨈᨘ ᨆᨕᨙ ᨀᨅᨑ?Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text apa antu mae kabaraʼ?Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text apa kabar?Category:Articles containing Indonesian-language text how are you?
ᨅᨍᨗᨅᨍᨗᨍᨗCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text bajiʼ-bajiʼjiCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text baik-baik sajaCategory:Articles containing Indonesian-language text I am fine
ᨊᨕᨗ ᨕᨑᨙᨊᨘ?Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text nai arenta?Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text siapa namamu?Category:Articles containing Indonesian-language text what's your name?
ᨒᨀᨙᨑᨙᨀᨗ ᨆᨕᨙ?
ᨒᨀᨙᨀᨗ ᨆᨕᨙ?
ᨒᨀᨙᨆᨕᨗᨀᨗ?Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text		 lakereki mae?Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text,
lakekimae?Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text,
lakemaeki?Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text		 kamu mau ke mana?Category:Articles containing Indonesian-language text where are you going?
ᨀᨙᨑᨙᨀᨗ ᨆᨕᨙ ᨕᨆᨈCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text kerekiʼ mae ammantang?Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text kamu tinggal di mana?Category:Articles containing Indonesian-language text where do you live?
ᨔᨗᨐᨄᨆᨗ ᨕᨘᨆᨘᨑᨘᨈ?Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text siapami umuruʼta?Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text berapa usiamu?Category:Articles containing Indonesian-language text how old are you?
ᨔᨒᨆᨀᨗ ᨑᨗ ᨆᨂᨙᨕᨈᨙCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text salamakkiʼ ri mangeantaCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text selamat sampai tujuanCategory:Articles containing Indonesian-language text have a safe trip
ᨔᨒᨆᨀᨗ ᨑᨗ ᨒᨄᨈCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text salamakkiʼ ri lampantaCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text selamat tinggalCategory:Articles containing Indonesian-language text goodbye
ᨅᨈᨘ ᨑᨗ ᨀᨈᨙCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text battu ri katteCategory:Articles containing Makasar-language text tergantung padamuCategory:Articles containing Indonesian-language text it depends on you

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ "Affixal clitics" or "phrasal affixes" are a group of morphemes in the Makassar language that have similar properties to affixes (because they are counted to determine stress) and clitics (because they are bound to phrases rather than words). The boundary between affixal clitics and the morphemes they affix is marked with the symbol ≡.[35]
  2. ↑ The 'verb base' referred to is a verb with the prefix aK-Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text or aN(N)-Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text.[60] Manyambeang, Mulya & Nasruddin (1996) analyze this form as PaK-Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text/paN(N)-Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text + verb root,[61] but Jukes argues that this analysis is less elegant because it assumes a greater number of affix morphemes. Furthermore, this analysis also cannot explain why PaK-Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text and paN(N)-Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text are commonly found on verbs that can be affixed with aK-Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text and aN(N)-Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text.[60]
  3. ↑ For example, like causative verbs that are derived from verb roots with the prefix pa-Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text (homonymous with the noun-forming prefix) or derived from adjective roots with paka-Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text.[62]
  4. ↑ Specifically for this form, Jukes analyzes the prefix as paK-Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text instead of pa-Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text + aK-Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text, because the adjective can stand alone as a predicate without the aK-Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text prefix.[65]
  5. ↑ example:[68]
    Kagassing-gassingannami

    ka>

    NR>

    gassing-

    RDP-

    gassing

    strong

    <ang

    <NR

    ≡na

    ≡3.POSS

    =mo

    =PFV

    =i

    =3

    'heʼs already at the peak of his strength'

References

Citations

  1. ↑ Makasarese at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)Category:Pages containing links to subscription-only contentCategory:Language articles citing Ethnologue 18
  2. ↑ Smith (2017), pp. 443–444.
  3. 1 2 Grimes & Grimes (1987), pp. 25–29.
  4. 1 2 Jukes (2005), p. 649.
  5. ↑ Sirk (1989), pp. 72–73.
  6. ↑ Friberg & Laskowske (1989), p. 3.
  7. 1 2 3 Manyambeang, Mulya & Nasruddin (1996), pp. 2–4.
  8. ↑ Grimes & Grimes (1987), pp. 25–26.
  9. 1 2 Jukes (2020), pp. 20–21.
  10. ↑ Jukes (2020), p. 20.
  11. ↑ Ananta et al. (2015), p. 278.
  12. 1 2 Tabain & Jukes (2016), p. 99.
  13. ↑ Ananta et al. (2015), p. 280.
  14. ↑ Ananta et al. (2015), p. 292.
  15. ↑ Urry & Walsh (1981), p. 92.
  16. ↑ Jukes (2020), p. 30.
  17. ↑ Jukes, Anthony, "Makassar" in K. Alexander Adelaar & Nikolaus Himmelmann, 2005, The Austronesian languages of Asia and Madagascar, pp. 649-682, London, Routledge ISBN 0-7007-1286-0
  18. 1 2 3 Jukes (2020), p. 85.
  19. ↑ Jukes (2020), p. 86.
  20. ↑ Tabain & Jukes (2016), p. 105.
  21. ↑ Jukes (2020), p. 90.
  22. 1 2 Jukes (2020), p. Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from August 2024[page needed]
  23. ↑ Jukes (2020), p. 93.
  24. ↑ Jukes (2020), pp. 94–95.
  25. 1 2 Jukes (2020), p. 98.
  26. 1 2 Jukes (2020), p. 108.
  27. ↑ Macknight (2012), p. 10.
  28. 1 2 Basri, Broselow & Finer (1999), p. 26.
  29. 1 2 Tabain & Jukes (2016), p. 107.
  30. 1 2 Jukes (2020), pp. 107, 109.
  31. 1 2 Tabain & Jukes (2016), p. 108.
  32. ↑ Jukes (2020), pp. 97, 99–100.
  33. ↑ Jukes (2005), p. 651–652.
  34. ↑ Basri, Broselow & Finer (1999), pp. 25–26.
  35. ↑ Jukes (2020), p. 133–134.
  36. 1 2 Jukes (2020), p. 101.
  37. ↑ Jukes (2005), pp. 652, 656, 659.
  38. ↑ Basri, Broselow & Finer (1999), pp. 27.
  39. ↑ Jukes (2005), p. 652–653.
  40. ↑ Basri, Broselow & Finer (1999), pp. 26–27.
  41. 1 2 Jukes (2020), p. 171.
  42. 1 2 Jukes (2020), p. 169.
  43. ↑ Macknight (2012), p. 13.
  44. 1 2 3 Jukes (2020), p. 170.
  45. ↑ Jukes (2005), p. 657.
  46. 1 2 Jukes (2020), pp. 147, 196.
  47. ↑ Jukes (2020), p. 147.
  48. ↑ Jukes (2020), p. 196.
  49. 1 2 Jukes (2020), p. 199.
  50. 1 2 Jukes (2020), p. 197.
  51. ↑ Jukes (2020), pp. 197, 199–200.
  52. ↑ Jukes (2020), pp. 203–207.
  53. ↑ Jukes (2020), p. 208.
  54. ↑ Jukes (2020), pp. 208–222.
  55. ↑ Manyambeang et al. (1979), pp. 38–39, 43–44, 46.
  56. ↑ Jukes (2020), pp. 208–209.
  57. ↑ Mursalin et al. (1984), p. 45.
  58. ↑ Jukes (2020), p. 209–210.
  59. ↑ Manyambeang et al. (1979), p. 38.
  60. 1 2 Jukes (2020), p. 211.
  61. ↑ Manyambeang, Mulya & Nasruddin (1996), pp. 82–83.
  62. 1 2 3 Jukes (2020), p. 211–212.
  63. ↑ Manyambeang et al. (1979), pp. 38–39.
  64. ↑ Jukes (2020), p. 214–215.
  65. 1 2 Jukes (2020), p. 216–217.
  66. ↑ Jukes (2020), p. 216–218.
  67. 1 2 Manyambeang et al. (1979), p. 46.
  68. ↑ Jukes (2020), p. 218.
  69. ↑ Jukes (2020), p. 218–219.
  70. ↑ Jukes (2020), p. 219–220.
  71. ↑ Jukes (2020), p. 221–222.
  72. ↑ Manyambeang et al. (1979), pp. 43–44.
  73. ↑ Jukes (2020), p. 209.
  74. ↑ Jukes (2020), p. 212–213.
  75. ↑ Manyambeang et al. (1979), pp. 38, 57.
  76. ↑ Jukes (2020), p. 215–216.
  77. ↑ Jukes (2020), p. 222.
  78. ↑ Jukes (2020), pp. 224–226.
  79. ↑ Jukes (2020), p. 224.
  80. 1 2 Jukes (2020), p. 225.
  81. ↑ Jukes (2020), pp. 137, 224.
  82. 1 2 3 Jukes (2020), p. 226.
  83. 1 2 Jukes (2013a), p. 68.
  84. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Jukes (2013a), p. 69.
  85. ↑ Jukes (2013b), pp. 123–124.Category:Harv and Sfn no-target errors
  86. ↑ Jukes (2020), pp. 126, 132.
  87. 1 2 Jukes (2013b), p. 125.Category:Harv and Sfn no-target errors
  88. 1 2 3 4 Jukes (2013b), p. 127.Category:Harv and Sfn no-target errors
  89. 1 2 3 Jukes (2013b), p. 128.Category:Harv and Sfn no-target errors
  90. ↑ Jukes (2013b), p. 128–129.Category:Harv and Sfn no-target errors
  91. 1 2 3 Jukes (2013b), p. 129.Category:Harv and Sfn no-target errors
  92. 1 2 Jukes (2013b), p. 130.Category:Harv and Sfn no-target errors
  93. ↑ Jukes (2020), pp. 132–133.
  94. 1 2 3 Jukes (2020), p. 133.
  95. ↑ Pandey, Anshuman (2015-11-02). "L2/15-233: Proposal to encode the Makasar script in Unicode" (PDF).
  96. 1 2 Jukes 2014, p. 6.
  97. ↑ Jukes 2014, p. 9.
  98. ↑ Cummings 2003, p. xii.
  99. ↑ Noorduyn 1993, p. 533.
  100. ↑ Jukes 2020, p. 54.

Bibliography

Category:Languages of Sulawesi Category:South Sulawesi languages
Category:Articles containing Arabic-language text Category:Articles containing Indonesian-language text Category:Articles containing Makasar-language text Category:Articles with short description Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 Category:CS1 maint: ref duplicates default Category:Harv and Sfn no-target errors Category:Language articles citing Ethnologue 18 Category:Language articles with old Ethnologue 18 speaker data Category:Languages of Sulawesi Category:Languages with ISO 639-2 code Category:Pages containing links to subscription-only content Category:Pages with Makasar IPA Category:Pages with plain IPA Category:Short description is different from Wikidata Category:South Sulawesi languages Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from August 2024